Lembe maeni utiye thenge mi wi lembe mi sayu lembe "Yore mi dwoko piny ma kwo man yore mi dwoko piny ma kwo (SOC)". Nen lembe 14 zo
Low molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) calu naphthalene man substituted naphthalenes (methylnaphthalene, naphthoic acid, 1-naphthyl-N-methylcarbamate, etc.) jutiyu kudu lee i tic matung tung man gitiye genotoxic, mutagenic man/nyo carcinogenic ni piny ma kwo. Jam piny ma juyubu ku piny ma kwo (SOCs) nyo xenobiotics nen calu piny ma rac man gi kelo peko madit ikum kwo pa dhanu man yot kum pa dhanu. Tek pa tic pa dhanu (calu, loko makaa, yiko moo, wodhu pa mutukari man tic mi poto) nyuthu kadhiri, anyim man tero pa piny eni ma nwangre kamaleng man ma rii pi kare malac. Mi medo ikum yore mi yath man mi yath, yore mi gwoko leng man ma ber pa kabedu calu bioremediation, ma tiyo ku microorganisms ma copo nyotho POCs nyo loko gi ni piny ma rac ungo, uwok ni yore mukende maber, ma ber man ma ber. Kit bacteria matung tung ma nwangire i phyla Proteobacteria (Pseudomonas, Pseudomonas, Comamonas, Burkholderia, man Neosphingobacterium), Firmicutes (Bacillus man Paenibacillus), man Actinobacteria (Rhodococcus man Arthrobacter) i ngom gi nyutho kero migi mi nyotho piny ma tung tung. Somo mi metabolic, genomics, man metagenomic analysis konyowa ni nyang ikum catabolic complexity man diversity ma nwangre i kit kwo ma yot eni, ma juromo tiyo kudu pi nyayu kwo maber. Bedo pa PAHs pi kare malac ukelo wok pa kit ma nyen mi nyothre nikadhu kud i rwom pa gene ma jutiyo kudu ku jam piny ma calu plasmids, transposons, bacteriophages, genomic islands, man integrative conjugative elements. Systems biology man genetic engineering pa isolates moko nyo model communities (consortia) copo ketho bioremediation ma rwinyo, pio pio man maber pa PAHs eni nikadhu kud i tic ma jutimo karacelu. I lembe maeni, wabe ketho wigi ikum yore matung tung mi tic pa piny man tung tung, kit ma gene man tung tung, man dwokowang/loko pa naphthalene man bacteria ma nyayu naphthalene. Eni bi miyo ngec ikum piny ma kwo pi tic kudu i podho man yubu kit pa lei pi timo tic maber.
Dongo pio pio pa tic (petrochemicals, pur, yath, rangi mi bongo, jamb kum, man mukende mapol) ukelo dongo dongo mi lim i ng'om zoo man ukelo kwo maber. Dongo ma dit eni ukelo yubu piny madwong ma juyubu ku piny ma kwo (SOCs), ma jutiyo kudu pi yubu piny matung tung. Jam piny ma woko eni nyo SOCs uketho i iye polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), yath mi neko lei, yath mi neko lum, plasticizers, dyes, pharmaceuticals, organophosphates, flame retardants, volatile organic solvents, man mange. Giwok woko i yamu, i pii man i ngom kama gibedo ku adwogi marac, adwogi ikum kit piny matung tung ni kadhu kud i aloka loka pa kit piny man kite ma dhanu nen kudu (Petrie et al., 2015; Bernhardt et al., 2017; Sarkar et al., 2020). Piny madwong ma nyayu nguce ma leng utiye ku adwogi marac ikum piny mapol ma kwo/kabedo ma kwo (calu, got ma julwongo ni coral reefs, Arctic/Antarctic ice sheets, high mountain lakes, deep-sea sediments, etc.) (Jones 2010; Beyer et al. 2020; Nordborg et al. 2020). Somo mi geomicrobiological ma kawoni unyutho nia ketho piny ma kwo (calu ve aromatic pollutants) man piny ma wok kud i iye iwi ngom ma juyubu (kabedo ma jugiero) (calu kabedo mi tekwaro man monuments ma juyubu ku granite, kidi, yen man cuma) nyayu ret migi nyathotho (Gadd Liu et al. 2017; 2018). Tic pa dhanu copo medo man nyayu peko i kum piny ma kwo man ot ni kadhu kud i lyethu pa yamu man aloka loka pa kite ma koth ku ceng ryeny kudu (Liu et al. 2020). Piny ma rac eni timo tic ku pii ma mol i yamu man gibedo iwi ot, ma nyayu nyoth pa piny man kemikol. Biodegradation ungeyere ni aloka loka ma ber ongo i kite ma piny nen kudu man kite ma piny ma kwo timo kudu ma nyayu peko i kum gwoko gi (Pochon ku Jaton, 1967). Tic pa jamb kum ma nok (metabolism) pa jamb kum eni copo dwoko piny bedo pa jamb kum, bedo maber pa gwoko piny man beru pa kura (Gadd, 2017; Liu et al., 2018). Icing ling acel, i kare moko, loko pa microbial ni man dwokowang ikum piny eni junwango ni ber pi gi ketho biofilms man piny mukende ma gwoko kum ma dwoko piny kadhiri pa nyothre (Martino, 2016). Pieno, dongo pa yore maber mi gwoko piny ma rii pi kare malac pi kidi, cuma man yen mito nyang maber pa lembe ma pire tek ma tiye i yub eni. Ka juporo ku lembe ma wok kud i ngom (tic mi ngom, mac mi lum, wang got ma lyel mac, timo pa yen man bacteria), tic pa dhanu kelo wodhu pa polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) man organic carbon mange (OC) i ecosystems. PAHs madwong ma jutiyo kudu i tic mi poto (yath mi neko lei man yath mi neko lei calu DDT, atrazine, carbaryl, pentachlorophenol, man mukende mapol), tic (moo ma leng, oil sludge/waste, plastics ma wok kud i petroleum, PCBs, plasticizers, detergents, disinfectants, fumigants, gragrance preservatives), man piny ma gwoko kwo pa dhanu (jamb gwoko ceng, yath mi neko two, yath mi jwigo lei man polycyclic musks) man jam lwiny (jami ma nyayu wang calo 2,4,6-TNT) gibedo xenobiotics ma copo nyayu peko i kum yot kum mi ng'om (Srogi, 2007; Vamsee-Krishna and Phale, 2008; Petrie et al., 2015). Lembe maeni jucopo medu ni medo ikum piny ma wok kud i petroleum (fuel oils, lubricants, asphaltenes), high molecular weight bioplastics, man ionic liquids (Amde et al., 2015). Table 1 nyuthu piny ma rac ma tung tung man tic migi i tic matung tung. I kind oro ma ukadhu, lyethu ma dhanu timo ku piny ma kwo ma nyai, man carbon dioxide man yamu mange ma nyayu lyethu, ucaku medere (Dvorak et al., 2017). Ento, adwogi pa dhanu ukadhu adwogi pa piny. Mi medo, wanwango ni wel pa SOCs udong i kabedu madwong man junwango gi ni piny ma rac ma wok ku adwogi marac ikum biomes (lanyut 1). Juwang tic mi gwoko kwo pa piny macalo United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) gi ketho pol pa piny ma rac eni i kind piny ma pire tek ni kum gi pi bedo pa piny ma nyayu two, nyayu two, nyayu two, man nyayu two. Pieno, cik ma tek mi jwigo piny man yore maber mi yiku piny ma rac kud i kabedu ma rac mitire. Yore matung tung mi timo tic ku piny man kemikol calu pyrolysis, oxidative thermal treatment, air aeration, landfilling, incineration, man mukende mapol gi tiyo ngo maber man gi tek man gi kelo piny ma rac, ma rac man ma tek ni timo. Ku mediri pa ngec mi ng'om zoo, lei makwiny ma copo nyotho piny ma rac eni man piny ma wok kud i iye (macalu halogenated, nitro, alkyl man/nyo methyl) gibe kelo nen pa dhanu (Fennell et al., 2004; Haritash and Kaushik, 2009; Phale et al., 2002; Sarkar et al., 2020; Sarkar et al., 2002; Schwanemann et al., 2020). Tic ku piny ma dongo dongo ma dongo dongo eni kende nyo i kabedo ma tung tung (colonies) pi kwanyu piny ma rac ma leng utiye ku bero i yore mi gwoko kwo pa piny, wel piny, tic maber, tic maber, man bedo maber. Ju ma timo sayusac gibe sayu ikum rwom pa tic pa microbial ku yore mi electrochemical redox, ma julwongo ni bioelectrochemical systems (BES), calu yore maber mi yiko/wodhu piny ma rac (Huang et al., 2011). Teknoloji pa BES ukelo nen pa dhanu madwong pi tic pare maber, bey pare ma piny, bedo ber pa kabedu, tic pare i kabedo ma ngic, piny ma tiyo ku piny ma kwo, man kero mi dwoko piny ma pigi tek (calu, mac, moo, man kemikol) (Pant et al., 2012; Nazari et al., 2020). Nwangu pa rwom ma malu pa genome sequencing man omics tools/methods umiyu lembe manyen madwong ikum genetic regulation, proteomics, man fluxomics pa kit ma degrader microorganisms matung tung timo kudu. Kethu jam tic eni karacelu ku system biology umedire ni nyang ikum yero man yubu yore mi catabolic i microorganisms (niwacu, metabolic design) mi nwangu biodegradation maber man maber. Mi yubu yore maber mi dwoko kwo pa lei ma kwo, umitu wabed ku ngec ikum kero pa kwo, tung tung pa piny ma kwo, kit ma piny ma kwo utiye kudu, man kwo (autoecology/synecology) pa lei ma kwo.
Cal. 1. Kabedo man yore pa low-molecular PAHs kud i kabedu matung tung man piny matung tung ma nyayu peko i kwo. Laini ma nyai nyuthu kit ma piny ma kwo i iye timo kudu tic.
I lembe maeni, watemo ketho lembe ikum nyoth pa PAHs ma yot calu naphthalene man naphthalenes ma juloko ku bacterial isolates matung tung ma kwako yore mi metabolic man tung tung, enzymes ma tiye i nyoth, gene composition/content man diversity, cellular responses man aspects matung tung mi bioremediation. Ngeyo rwom pa biochemical man molecular bikonyo i ngeyo kit pa lei ma ber man medo genetic engineering migi pi dwoko piny ma rac ma pire tek. Eni bikonyo i yubu yore mi ketho dul pa bacteria ma rwate ku kabedo acel acel pi bioremediation maber.
Bedo tiye pa piny madwong ma rac man ma rac (ma rwate ku cik pa Huckel 4n + 2π electrons, n = 1, 2, 3, ...) nyayu lworo madit ikum piny matung tung ma kwo i iye calu yamu, ngom, lum, man pii ma iwi ngom man i ngom (Puglisi et al., 2007). Jam piny eni gitiye ku benzene rings acel (monocyclic) nyo benzene rings madwong (polycyclic) ma juyike i ayi ma rwom acel, angular nyo cluster man ginyutho bedo moth (bedo moth/ma bedo ngo moth) i kabedu pi kero ma malu pa negative resonance man inertness (inertness), ma jucopo gonyo pi hydrophobicity migi man dwoko piny pa bedo migi. Ka aromatic ring udok kendo ku methyl (-CH3), carboxyl (-COOH), hydroxyl (-OH), nyo sulfonate (-HSO3) dul, edoko tek, ebedo ku rwom ma malu pa macromolecules, man ebedo bioaccumulative in biological systems (Seo et al., 2009; Phale et al., 2020). Piny moko ma pek pa polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (LMWAHs), calu naphthalene man piny ma wok kud i iye [methylnaphthalene, naphthoic acid, naphthalenesulfonate, man 1-naphthyl N-methylcarbamate (carbaryl)], juketho gi ikind piny ma pire tek ma US Environmental Agency timo genotoxic, mutagenic, man/nyo carcinogenic (Cerniglia, 1984). Weko dul pa NM-PAHs eni i kabedu copo kelo bioaccumulation pa piny eni i rwom zo mi cam, ma copo nyayu peko ikum yot kum pa piny (Binkova et al., 2000; Srogi, 2007; Quinn et al., 2009).
Kabedo man yore pa PAHs ni biota utiye nikadhu kud i wotho man wec ikind piny matung tung ma kwo i ngom calu ngom, pii ma piny, pii ma iwi ngom, kodi man yamu (Arey ku Atkinson, 2003). Cal mir acel nyutho tic man poko pa PAHs ma pek migi nok in ecosystems man yore migi mi nwangu kwo/dhanu. PAHs ju ketho iwi ngom calu adwogi pa yamo ma rac man nikadhu kud i ngwec (drift) pa yamo ma wok kud i mutukari, yamo ma wok kud i tic (gasification pa makaa, wango man coke production) man bedo migi. Tic mi yiku piny macalo yiku jam tedo, rangi man rangi; gwoko yen; tic ku rubber; tic mi yubu cement; yubu yath mi neko lei; man tic mi poto ubedo piny madit ma kelo PAHs i ngom man i pii (Bamforth man Singleton, 2005; Wick et al., 2011). Somo unyutho nia ngom i kabedo ma ceng ceng man i adhura madongo, ceng ku yo madongo, man i adhura madongo gibedo ku kero mi nwangu polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) pi lembe ma wok kud i kabedo mi mac, lyethu mi ot, yamo man yo, man tic mi gedo (Suman et al., 2016). (2008) unyutho nia PAHs i ngom ceng ku yo i New Orleans, Louisiana, USA ubedo malo ma romo 7189 μg/kg, ento i kabedo ma oling, ubedu 2404 μg/kg kende. Kumeno bende, PAH ma romo 300 μg/kg jukoro i kabedo ma ceng ku kabedo mi yubu makaa i adhura mapol mi US (Kanaly man Harayama, 2000; Bamforth man Singleton, 2005). Ngom ma wok kud i adhura matung tung mi India calu Delhi (Sharma et al., 2008), Agra (Dubey et al., 2014), Mumbai (Kulkarni and Venkataraman, 2000) man Visakhapatnam (Kulkarni et al., 2014) jukoro nia gitiye ku PAH madwong. Aromatic compounds gibedo yot ni mako iwi ngom, piny ma kwo man lum, man edoko piny ma nyayu lyethu i kwo pa lei (Srogi, 2007; Peng et al., 2008). Kabedo madongo pa PAHs in piny ma kwo i pii utiye koth (koth ma pii/ma muth man pii ma mol), pii ma mol kud i adhura, pii ma ukadhu, pii ma i ngom man mange (Srogi, 2007). Juyiko nia 80% pa PAHs i nam gi ai kud i koth, lum, man lum ma jucwalo (Motelay-Massei et al., 2006; Srogi, 2007). PAHs madwong i pii ma iwi ngom nyoke pii ma wok kud i kabedo ma jubolo iye lum ma tek edaru wok i pii ma piny, ma kelo peko madit ikum yot kum pa dhanu pi dhanu ma kadhu 70% i South man Southeast Asia madhu pii ma piny (Duttagupta et al., 2019). Somo manyen pa Duttagupta et al. (2020) mi kulo (32) man pii ma piny (235) ma jutimo kud i West Bengal, India, unwangu niya 53% pa ​​dhanu ma bedo i adhura man 44% pa dhanu ma bedo i caru (ma romo 20 million) copo bedu ku naphthalene (4.9–10.6 μg/L) man piny ma wok kud i iye. Kit tic ku ngom matung tung man medo pii ma wok kud i ngom nen calu piny madit ma doro wotho (advection) pa PAHs ma pek migi nok in ngom. Pii ma wok kud i tic mi poto, pii ma ukadhu kud i adhura man i kabedo mi tic, man pii ma ukadhu kud i yugi junwango ni PAHs i pii man i the ngom. Koth ma mol kud i polo medo nyayu PAH pollution. Kite ma malu pa PAHs man alkyl derivatives migi (51 i wel) jukoro gi i kulo/kabedo mi pii i ng'om zoo, calu kulo Fraser, kulo Louan, kulo Denso, kulo Missouri, kulo Anacostia, kulo Ebro, man kulo Delaware (Yunker et al., 2002; Motelay-Massei et al., 2006; Li et al., 2006; 2010; Amoako et al., 2011; Kim et al., 2018). I pii mi kulo Ganges, naphthalene ku phenanthrene ju nwango gi ni piny ma pire tek uloyu (junwango i 70% pa lanyuth) (Duttagupta et al., 2019). Bende, somo unyutho nia medo chlorination i pii ma madhu copo telu yik pa PAHs ma oxygen man chlorinated (Manoli ku Samara, 1999). PAHs cokiri i kodhi, nying yen man dek macol calu adwogi pa kwanyo pa yen kud i ngom ma rac, pii ma piny man koth (Fismes et al., 2002). Lei mapol ma kwo i pii calu rec, mussels, clams man shrimp gibedo ku PAHs nikadhu kud i camu cam ma rac man pii nam, man bende nikadhu kud i kum man adila (Mackay and Fraser, 2000). Yore mi tedo/yubu piny macalo tedo, wango, wango, wango, umu, umu man tedo ku makaa copo kelo wel madwong pa PAHs i cam. Eni ucungo iwi yero piny ma jutiyo kudu pi tedo, wel pa phenolic/aromatic hydrocarbon, kite mi tedo, kit jam lyethu, wel pa pii, oxygen man lyethu mi mac (Guillén et al., 2000; Gomes et al., 2013). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) de junwango i cak i rwom matung tung (0.75–2.1 mg/L) (Girelli et al., 2014). Dwoko pa PAHs eni i cam de ucungo iwi kit ma cam utiye kudu, man adwogi marac migi ucungo iwi tic pa kum, tic pa piny, mako, poko man poko pa kum (Mechini et al., 2011).
Peko man adwogi marac pa polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) ungeyere pi kare malac (Cherniglia, 1984). Low molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (LMW-PAHs) (rings aryo ni adek) copo mako macromolecules matung tung calu DNA, RNA man proteins man gibedo carcinogenic (Santarelli et al., 2008). Ni kum kite migi ma gimaru ngo pii, jupoko gi ku lipid membranes. I dhanu, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases oxidize PAHs doko epoxides, moko ikum gi gibedo reactive (e.g., baediol epoxide) man copo telo wi loko pa cell ma ber ni malignant (Marston et al., 2001). Mi medo, piny ma loko loko pa PAHs calu quinones, phenols, epoxides, diols, man mange. gi rac uloyu ma sagu piny ma gicaku kudu. PAHs moko man jam tic migi copo nyayu peko i kum hormones man enzymes matung tung i tic mi yot kum, ma copo nyayu peko i kum dongo, dul kum ma dit, dul kum mi nyodo man dul kum ma gwoko kum (Swetha man Phale, 2005; Vamsee-Krishna et al., 2006; Oostingh et al., 2008). Bedo ikind kare manok ku PAHs ma pek migi nok jukoro nya nyayu peko i tic pa ombo man thrombosis ikind ju ma two asthma man medo peko pa two adila, ombo, ic man ic (Olsson et al., 2010; Diggs et al., 2011). Somo ikum lei de unyutho nia bedo i PAH copo bedu ku adwogi marac ikum tic mi nyodo man dongo man ecopu nyayu cataracts, ret pa adhi man adunde, man jaundice. Piny matung tung ma PAH timo ma calu diols, epoxides, quinones man free radicals (cations) junyutho ni gi ketho DNA adducts. Adducts ma ucungo ucungo junyutho nya giloko kit ma DNA timo kudu, ento adducts ma ucungo ngo copo loko DNA (mandha ne ni adenine man saa moko ni guanine); gin ario zoo copo nyayu peko ma copo kelo aloka loka (Schweigert et al. 2001). Mi medo, quinones (benzo-/pan-) copo nyayu reactive oxygen species (ROS), ma nyayu ret ma rac ikum DNA man macromolecules mukende, ma copo nyayu peko ikum tic/kwo pa ler (Ewa ku Danuta 2017). Bedo ikum piny ma nok pa pyrene, biphenyl man naphthalene jukoro nya enyayu two kanca i lei ma jutemo (Diggs et al. 2012). Ni lembe migi ma rac, yweyu/wodhu pa PAHs eni kud i kabedu ma rac utiye piny ma pire tek.
Yore matung tung mi nen man mi kemikol jutiyu kudu pi kwanyu PAHs kud i kabedo/kabedo ma rac. Lembe ma calu wango, kwanyo chlorination, UV oxidation, fixation, man solvent extraction utiye ku peko madwong, ikinde utiye yiku pa piny ma rac, bedo tek pa tic, bedo ber man cik, tic ma nok, man bey ma lee. Ento, nyoth pa piny ma kwo (ma julwongo ni bioremediation) utiye yore mukende maber ma kwako tic ku piny ma kwo ma nok i ayi pa piny ma leng nyo colonies. Ka juporo ku yore mi piny man mi kemikol, yore eni ber pi kwo pa piny, epe ku peko, epe ku sente madwong, man eber pi kare malac. Bioremediation copu bedu i kabedu ma two ne utwo (in situ) nyo i kabedu ma juyike maber (ex situ) man kumeno jubedu ka kwanu ni yore maber mi yiko two ma sagu yore macon mi tic ku piny (Juhasz and Naidu, 2000; Andreoni and Gianfreda, 2007; Megharaj et al., 2011; Phale et al., 2020; Phale et al., 2020; Sarkar et al., 2020).
Ngeyo lembe ma mako timo pa piny ma nyai ma nyayu tho pa piny ma leng utiye ku adwogi madit ikum lembe mi ngec man lim pi gwoko kwo pa piny man kabedu. Juporo 2.1×1018 grams pa carbon (C) ma jugwoko i lum man piny ma kwo (niwacu, moo, yamo, man makaa, niwacu, piny ma jucwalo) i ng'om zoo, ma timo tic ma pire tek i ng'om zoo. Ento, dongo dongo mi tic, kwanyo piny ma jucwalo, man tic pa dhanu ube nyayu peko i lithospheric carbon reservoirs, ma weko 5.5×1015 g pa organic carbon (calu pollutants) i yamu kubang oro (Gonzalez-Gaya et al., 2019). Pol pa organic carbon eni mondo i ngom man i nam nikadhu kud i sedimentation, transport, man runoff. Mi medo, piny manyen ma rac ma wok kud i piny ma jucwalo, calu plastik, plasticizers man plastic stabilizers (phthalates man isomers migi), nyayu rac pa nam, ngom man pii man kwo migi, ma nyayu peko mi kite ma koth ku ceng ryeny kudu i ng'om zoo. Kit microplastics matung tung, nanoplastics, plastic fragments man toxic monomer products migi ma wok kud i polyethylene terephthalate (PET) ucokiri i Pacific Ocean ikind North America ku Southeast Asia, ma uketho "Great Pacific Garbage Patch", ma nyayu peko i kum kwo mi nam (Newell et al., 2020). Somo mi ngec unyutho nya ecopu bedu ngo ni kwanyu piny ma rac/ma rac ku yore moku ci mi nen piny nyo kemikol. I lembe maeni, piny ma kwo ma pire tek uloyu utiye ju ma copo loko piny ma rac ni carbon dioxide, kero pa kemikol man piny mukende ma rac ma jik ungo ma dong gimondo i yore mi loko cam (H, O, N, S, P, Fe, man mange). Pieno, nyang ikum ecophysiology pa microbial pa aromatic pollutant mineralization man gwoko kabedu pare piretek pi ngiyo microbial carbon cycle, net carbon budget man peko mi kite ma koth ku ceng ryeny kudu i anyim. Ni lubre ku yeny madit mi kwanyu piny ma kumeno kud i kabedu, eco-industries matung tung ma nen ikum diro maleng wok. Yo mange, rwom pa piny ma jucwalo i tic/kemikol ma jucwalo ma jucoko i ecosystems (niwacu, yore ma jucwalo ni lonyo) nen calu acel ikin piny ma pire tek mi circular economy man yub mi dongo ngom (Close et al., 2012). Pieno, ni nyang ikum metabolic, enzymatic man genetic pa piny ma copo nyotho piny eni piretek mandha pi kwanyu man dwoko piny ma rac ma rac.
Ikind piny mapol ma nyayu nguce, wabe ketho wigi ikum PAHs ma pek migi nok calu naphthalene man naphthalenes ma juloko. Jam piny eni gi ubedo piny madongo ma wok kud i petroleum, rangi mi bongo, piny ma dhanu tiyo kudu, yath mi nek (mothballs man insect repellents), plasticizers man tannins man kumeno gi nyai in kabedo mapol (Preuss et al., 2003). Lapor manyen nyutho rwom pa naphthalene i pii ma pii, pii ma piny man ngom ma piny, vadose zones man pii ma pii, ma nyutho bedo pa naphthalene i kabedu (Duttagupta et al., 2019, 2020). Table 2 nyuthu kit pa piny, tic man adwogi pa yot kum pa naphthalene man piny ma wok kud i iye. Ka juporo ku PAHs mukende ma pek migi tek, naphthalene man piny ma wok kud i iye gibedo ma lworo pii ungo, gi nyai i pii man gi nyai i ecosystems, pieno pol kare jutiyo kudu calu lanyuth pi ponjo metabolism, genetics man metabolic diversity pa PAHs. Wel madit pa lei makwiny copo loko naphthalene man piny ma wok kud i iye, man lembe madwong utiye ikum yore migi mi loko, enzymes man kit migi (Mallick et al., 2011; Phale et al., 2019, 2020). Mi medo, naphthalene ku piny ma wok kud i iye juyike ni piny ma jutiyo kudu pi pimo ikum ler pa kabedu pi bedo madwong man bedo pa piny ma kwo. Juwang tic mi gwoko kwo pa piny mi Amerika giporo nia kadhiri pa naphthalene utiye 5.19 μg pi cubic meter acel acel kud i iro pa sigaret, ma pire tek uloyu kud i lyethu ma rwinyo ngo, man 7.8 ku 46 μg kud i iro ma juwango ku cinge, man bedo i kind creosote ku naphthalene utiye 100 ku 100,000 wang mapol (Preus et al. 2003). Naphthalene kende re ma junwango ni etiye ku kit, kabedo, man nico ku dhaku ma nyayu two i yuyu man nyayu two kanca. Ni lubre ku lembe ma jutimo ikum lei, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) uketho naphthalene ni "piny ma copo nyayu two ikum dhanu" (Group 2B)1. Bedo i kum naphthalenes ma juloko, ma pire tek ni yweyo nyo miyo i dog, nyayu ret i kum ombo man medo two pa ombo i oyo man oyo (National Toxicology Program 2). Adwogi ma rac uketho i iye remo, ngok, remo ic, ic remo, wic remo, wic ma wic unyai, lyethu madwong, lyethu, adunde, man mange. Icing ling acel, broad-spectrum carbamate insecticide carbaryl (1-naphthyl N-methylcarbamate) jukoro ni etiye rac pa lei ma kwo i pii, lei ma kwo i pii, man dhanu man junyutho nia ecopo juku acetylcholinesterase ma nyayu goro (Smulders et al., 2003; Bulen and Distel, 2011). Pieno, nyang ikum yore mi nyoth pa piny ma kwo, yub pa gene, tic pa enzyme man cellular reactions piretek pi yubu yore mi dwoko kwo pa piny i kabedu ma rac.
Table 2. Lembe ma dongo dongo ikum kit ma physicochemical, tic kudu, yore mi ngeyo man two ma mako naphthalene man piny ma wok kud i iye.
I kabedo ma cido, piny ma cido ma maru pii man ma maru moo copo nyayu adwogi matung tung ikum microbiome (kabedo), calu aloka loka i membrane fluidity, membrane permeability, lipid bilayer swelling, disruption of energy transfer (electron transport chain/proton motive force), man tic pa membrane-associated proteins (Sikke et al., et al. 1995). Mi medo, piny moko ma nyai macalo catechols man quinones giwodho reactive oxygen species (ROS) man giketho adducts ku DNA man proteins (Penning et al., 1999). Pieno, dwong pa piny ma kumeno i ecosystems nyayu kero ikum dul pa microbial ni doko ju ma timo tic maber i rwom matung tung, ikinde utiye gamo/tero, loko piny i kind piny, timo/tiyo kudu, man poko piny.
Sayu pa Ribosomal Database Project-II (RDP-II) unyutho nia wel pa kit bacteria 926 jupoko kud i media nyo enrichment cultures ma juketho i iye naphthalene nyo piny ma wok kud i iye. Udul pa Proteobacteria ubedo ku wel ma malu pa ju ma ucungo (n = 755), ulube ku Firmicutes (52), Bacteroidetes (43), Actinobacteria (39), Tenericutes (10), man unclassified bacteria (8) (Figure 2). Ju ma gicungo pi γ-Proteobacteria (Pseudomonadales man Xanthomonadales) gi loyo dul pa Gram-negative ku G+C madwong (54%), man Clostridiales ku Bacillales (30%) gibedo dul pa Gram-positive ku G+C manok. Pseudomonas (wel ma malu uloyu, 338 kit) juwacu nia gicopo nyotho naphthalene man methyl derivatives pare i kabedo matung tung ma rac (coal tar, petroleum, crude oil, sludge, oil spills, wastewater, organic waste man landfills) man bende i ecosystems ma rwinyo ngo (pi mi kulo, man pii mi ngom) (lanyut 2). Bende, somo mi medo piny man nyang ikum thenge moko mi kabedo eni unyutho nia kit Legionella man Clostridium ma jupidho ngo copo bedu ku copo mi nyotho piny, ma nyutho yeny mi pito bacteria eni pi niponjo yore manyen man tung tung mi timo piny.
Cal. 2. Tung tung pa poko man poko pa bacteria i kabedu ma juketho i iye naphthalene man piny ma wok kud i naphthalene.
Ikind piny ma tung tung ma nyayu lyethu pa hydrocarbon, pol migi copo nyotho naphthalene calu piny acel kende ma kelo carbon man tego. Lembe ma lubo ma mako tic pa naphthalene jukoro pi Pseudomonas sp. (kit: NCIB 9816-4, G7, AK-5, PMD-1 man CSV86), Pseudomonas stutzeri AN10, Pseudomonas fluorescens PC20 man kit mange (ND6 man AS1) (Mahajan et al., 1994; Resnick et al., 1996; Anweer et al., 2000; al., 2003; Dennis and Zylstra, 2004; Sota et al., 2006; Metabolism ucaku ku multicomponent dioxygenase [naphthalene dioxygenase (NDO), a ring hydroxylating dioxygenase] ma ketho oxidation pa acel ikin aromatic rings ni tiyo ku molecule mange substrate, ma loko naphthalene ni cis-naphthalenediol (lanyut 3 Cis-dihydrodiol loko ni 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene ku dehydrogenase A ring-cleaving dioxygenase, 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene dioxygenase (12-dihydroxynaphthalene dioxygenase), loko ni DHNDoxy,2. 2-hydroxychromene-2-carboxylic acid enzymatic cis-trans isomerization produces trans-o-hydroxybenzylidenepyruvate, ma jupoko ku hydratase aldolase ni salicylic aldehyde man pyruvate The organic acid pyruvate ubedo C3 ma kwong ma juwodho kud i carbon skele man i carbonton. yore. Mi medo, NAD+-dependent salicylaldehyde dehydrogenase loko salicylaldehyde i rwom maeni julwongo ni "upper pathway" mi naphthalene degradation. hamburgii 2, naphthalene degradation ucaku ku naphthalene 2,3-dioxygenase mi yubu 2,3-dihydroxynaphthalene (Annweiler et al., 2000).
Cal 3. Yore pa naphthalene, methylnaphthalene, naphthoic acid, man carbaryl degradation. Namba ma jugoro nyuthu enzymes ma timo tic mi loko naphthalene man piny ma wok kud i iye ni piny mukende. 1 — naphthalene dioxygenase (NDO); 2, cis-dihydrodiol dehydrogenase; 3, 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene dioxygenase; 4, 2-hydroxychromene-2-carboxylic acid isomerase; 5, trans-O-hydroxybenzylidenepyruvate hydratase aldolase; 6, salicylaldehyde dehydrogenase; 7, salicylate 1-hydroxylase; 8, catechol 2,3-dioxygenase (C23DO); 9, 2-hydroxymuconate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; 10, 2-oxopent-4-enoate hydratase; 11, 4-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate aldolase; 12, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase; 13, catechol-1,2-dioxygenase (C12DO); 14, muconate cycloisomerase; 15, muconolactone delta-isomerase; 16, β-ketoadipatenollactone hydrolase; 17, β-ketoadipate succinyl-CoA transferase; 18, β-ketoadipate-CoA thiolase; 19, succinyl-CoA: acetyl-CoA succinyltransferase; 20, salicylate 5-hydroxylase; 21 – gentisate 1,2-dioxygenase (GDO); 22, maleylpyruvate isomerase; 23, fumarylpyruvate hydrolase; 24, methylnaphthalene hydroxylase (NDO); 25, hydroxymethylnaphthalene dehydrogenase; 26, naphthaldehyde dehydrogenase; 27, 3-formylsalicylic acid oxidase; 28, hydroxyisophthalate decarboxylase; 29, carbaryl hydrolase (CH); 30, 1-naphthol-2-hydroxylase.
Nimakere ku piny ma kwo man kite ma gikwo kudu, salicylic acid ma wok kud i iye ju medo lokore nikadhu kud i catechol pathway ma jutiyo kudu ku salicylate 1-hydroxylase (S1H) nyo nikadhu kud i gentisate pathway ma jutiyo kudu ku salicylate 5-hydroxylase (S5H) (lanyut 3). Calu ma salicylic acid ubedo piny madit ma tiyo ikind naphthalene (yore ma malu), rwom ma wok kud i salicylic acid ni TCA ma iye pol kare julwongo ni yore ma piny, man genes juyike i operon acel. Ebedo lembe ma rwinyo ni neno nia genes ma ni i operon ma malu (nah) man operon ma piny (sal) juyike ku piny ma rwinyo; calu lapor, NahR ku salicylic acid gitimo tic calu inducers, ma weko operons ario zoo gi loko naphthalene (Phale et al., 2019, 2020).
Mi medo, catechol jupoko ni 2-hydroxymuconate semialdehyde nikadhu kud i meta pa catechol 2,3-dioxygenase (C23DO) (Yen et al., 1988) man jupoko ku 2-hydroxymuconate semialdehyde hydrolase ni yubu 2-hydroxymuconate semialdehyde, 24-dioxygenase. 2-hydroxypent-2,4-dienoate edoko pyruvate man acetaldehyde ku hydratase (2-oxopent-4-enoate hydratase) man aldolase (4-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate aldolase) man emondo i yo mi carbon (lanyut 3). Yo mange, catechol jupoko ni cis,cis-muconate nikadhu kud i ortho pathway ku catechol 1,2-oxygenase (C12DO). Muconate cycloisomerase, muconolactone isomerase, man β-ketoadipate-nollactone hydrolase loko cis,cis-muconate ni 3-oxoadipate, ma mondo i yo mi carbon nikadhu kud i succinyl-CoA man acetyl-CoA (Nozaki et al., 1968) (Figure 33).
I yore mi gentisate (2,5-dihydroxybenzoate), aromatic ring jupoko ku gentisate 1,2-dioxygenase (GDO) mi yubu maleylpyruvate. Piny eni copu bedu hydrolyzed ni pyruvate man malate, nyo ecopu bedu isomerized ni bedo fumarylpyruvate, ma ecopu bedu hydrolyzed ni pyruvate man fumarate (Larkin ku Day, 1986). Yer pa yo mange nenre i Gram-negative man Gram-positive bacteria i thenge mi biochemical man genetic (Morawski et al., 1997; Whyte et al., 1997). Gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas) gimaru tiyo ku salicylic acid, ma en e piny ma nyayu tic pa naphthalene, ma weko edok catechol ku tic ku salicylate 1-hydroxylase (Gibson ku Subramanian, 1984). Icing ling acel, i Gram-positive bacteria (Rhodococcus), salicylate 5-hydroxylase loko salicylic acid ni gentisic acid, ento salicylic acid epe ku adwogi moko iwi kyeu pa naphthalene genes (Grund et al., 1992) (Figure 3).
Jukoro nia lei ma calu Pseudomonas CSV86, Oceanobacterium NCE312, Marinhomonas naphthotrophicus, Sphingomonas paucimobilis 2322, Vibrio cyclotrophus, Pseudomonas fluorescens LP6a, Pseudomonas man Mycobacterium can degrade species moncicomethale dimethylnaphthalene (Dean-Raymond man Bartha, 1975; Cane man Williams, 1982; Mahajan et al., 1994; Dutta et al., 1998; Hedlund et al., 1999). Ikindgi, 1-methylnaphthalene man 2-methylnaphthalene yore mi nyoth pa Pseudomonas sp. CSV86 judaru ponjo maleng i thenge mi biochemical man enzymatic (Mahajan et al., 1994). 1-Methylnaphthalene lokore nikadhu kud i yore aryo. Mir acel, aromatic ring ubedo hydroxylated (the unsubstituted ring of methylnaphthalene) mi yubu cis-1,2-dihydroxy-1,2-dihydro-8-methylnaphthalene, ma ju medo oxidized ni methyl salicylate man methylcatechol, man edham emondo i central carbon pathway ingey clecle ring (Figure 3). Yore eni julwonge niya "yore mi kadhiri pa yamo". I yore mir aryo mi "detotoxication", dul pa methyl copo bedu hydroxylated ku NDO ni yubu 1-hydroxymethylnaphthalene, ma ju medo oxidize ni 1-naphthoic acid man juwodho i culture medium calu piny ma tho. Somo unyutho nia kit CSV86 copo dongo ngo iwi 1- man 2-naphthoic acid calu piny acel kende ma mio carbon man tego, ma nyutho yore pare mi kwanyo piny marac (Mahajan et al., 1994; Basu et al., 2003). I 2-methylnaphthalene, dul pa methyl ukadhu kud i hydroxylation ku hydroxylase mi yubu 2-hydroxymethylnaphthalene. Mi medo, unsubstituted ring pa naphthalene ring timo ring hydroxylation mi yubu dihydrodiol, ma judwoko ni 4-hydroxymethylcatechol i dul pa enzyme-catalyzed reactions man emondo i central carbon pathway nikadhu kud i meta-ring cleavage pathway. Kumeno bende, S. paucimobilis 2322 jukoro nia etiyo ku NDO ni hydroxylate 2-methylnaphthalene, ma ju medo oxidized ni bedo methyl salicylate man methylcatechol (Dutta et al., 1998).
Naphthoic acids (substituted/unsubstituted) utiye piny ma wok kud i detoxification/biotransformation ma juyubu i saa mi nyoth pa methylnaphthalene, phenanthrene man anthracene man juwodho gi i kabedo ma jutiyo kudu. Jukoro nia Stenotrophomonas maltophilia CSV89 copo loko 1-naphthoic acid calu piny ma kelo carbon (Phale et al., 1995). Metabolism ucaku ku dihydroxylation pa aromatic ring mi yubu 1,2-dihydroxy-8-carboxynaphthalene. Diol ma wok kud i iye edoko catechol nikadhu kud i 2-hydroxy-3-carboxybenzylidenepyruvate, 3-formylsalicylic acid, 2-hydroxyisophthalic acid man salicylic acid man emondo i yore mi carbon nikadhu kud i meta-ring cleavage pathway (lanyut 3).
Carbaryl ubedo yath mi neko lei ma julwongo ni naphthyl carbamate. Nicaku i Green Revolution i India i oro 1970, tic ku jam tedo man yath mi neko lei ukelo dongo pa polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) ma wok kud i ngom ma wok kud i ngom (Pingali, 2012; Duttagupta et al., 2020). Ikind 55% (85,722,000 hectares) pa ngom mi India juyike ku yath mi neko lei. Pi oro abic mukadho (2015-2020), dul pa tic mi poto mi India otiyo ku 55,000 ku 60,000 tonnes pa yath ma neko lei (Department of Cooperatives and Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, August 2020). I ng'om mi Gangetic ma yo malu man ma yo reto (ng'om ma dhanu bedo i iye madwong man dhanu madwong), tic ku yath mi neko lei iwi kodhi ubedo ka nyai, ku yath mi neko lei makwiny ubedo madwong. Carbaryl (1-naphthyl-N-methylcarbamate) ubedo yath ma tiyo ku carbamate ma tiyo ku 100-110 tonnes. Pol kare jucwale ku nying mi kuloka Sevin man jutiyo kudu pi jwigo lei (aphids, fire ants, fleas, mites, spiders man lei mange mapol ma rac) ma nyayu peko ikum kodi matung tung (maize, soybean, cotton, nying yen man dek macol). Kwondi moko ma nok calo Pseudomonas (NCIB 12042, 12043, C4, C5, C6, C7, Pseudomonas putida XWY-1), Rhodococcus (NCIB 12038), Sphingobacterium spp. (CF06), Burkholderia (C3), Micrococcus man Arthrobacter de jucopo tiyo kudu pi juku lei mukende. Juwacu nia RC100 copo nyotho carbaryl (Larkin man Day, 1986; Chapalamadugu man Chaudhry, 1991; Hayatsu et al., 1999; Swetha and Phale, 2005; Trivedi et al., 2017). Yore mi nyoth pa carbaryl jutimo sayusac ikume lee i thenge mi biochemical, enzymatic man genetic i ngom ma jupoko pa Pseudomonas sp. Kit C4, C5 man C6 (Swetha ku Phale, 2005; Trivedi et al., 2016) (cal 3). Yore mi loko piny caku ku nyayu pa ester bond ku carbaryl hydrolase (CH) mi yubu 1-naphthol, methylamine man carbon dioxide. 1-naphthol edoko 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene ku 1-naphthol hydroxylase (1-NH), ma edoko lokore nikadhu kud i yore mi carbon nikadhu kud i salicylate man gentisate. Bacteria moko ma nyayu carbaryl-degrading jubedu ka loko gi ni salicylic acid nikadhu kud i cleavage pa catechol ortho ring (Larkin ku Day, 1986; Chapalamadugu ku Chaudhry, 1991). Ma pire tek, naphthalene-degrading bacteria timo tic ku salicylic acid nikadhu kud i catechol, man carbaryl-degrading bacteria maru loko salicylic acid nikadhu kud i gentisate pathway.
Naphthalenesulfonic acid/disulfonic acid man naphthylaminesulfonic acid derivatives jucopo tiyo kudu calu piny ma jutiyo kudu pi yubu azo dyes, wetting agents, dispersants, man mukende mapol. Kadi bende piny eni gitiye ku rac manok ikum dhanu, cytotoxicity assessments unyutho ni gi copo neko rec, daphim man algae (Grenia et algae, et. 1994). Ju ma gicungo pi genus Pseudomonas (strains A3, C22) jukoro nia gicaku metabolism ku double hydroxylation pa aromatic ring ma tingo sulfonic acid group ni yubu dihydrodiol, ma judwoko ni 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene ku spontaneous cleavage pa sulfite group (B rilon et al., 1918). Adwogi pa 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene juyike nikadhu kud i yore mi naphthalene macon, niwacu, yore mi catechol nyo gentisate (lanyut 4). Junyuthu nia aminonaphthalenesulfonic acid man hydroxynaphthalenesulfonic acid copo bedu ma rac ku dul pa bacteria ma tung tung ku yore mi catabolic (Nortemann et al., 1986). Junyuthu nia ngati acel mi dul ne desulfurizes aminonaphthalenesulfonic acid nyo hydroxynaphthalenesulfonic acid ku 1,2-dioxygenation, man aminosalicylate nyo hydroxysalicylate juwodho i culture medium calu piny ma tho man jumoko mi dul ne tingo. Naphthalenedisulfonic acid utiye polar ento ecopo nyothre ngo maber man ecopu loko yore matung tung. Desulfurization mir acel timere i saa mi regioselective dihydroxylation pa aromatic ring man sulfonic acid group; desulfurization mir aryo timere i saa mi hydroxylation pa 5-sulfosalicylic acid ku salicylic acid 5-hydroxylase mi yubu gentisic acid, ma mondo i yo mi carbon (Brilon et al., 1981) (Figure 4). Enzymes ma timo tic mi nyoth pa naphthalene de timo tic mi dwoko piny pa naphthalene sulfonate (Brilon et al., 1981; Keck et al., 2006).
Cal 4. Yore mi timo tic pa naphthalene sulfonate. Namba ma ni i kind dul nyuthu enzymes ma timo tic mi naphthyl sulfonate metabolism, marom/rom ku enzymes ma jukwanu i FIG. 3.
PAHs ma pek pa molecule migi nok (LMW-PAHs) gi copo dwoko piny, gi maru ngo pii man gi copo nyai ungo, man kumeno gicopo ngo ni nyai. Ento, piny ma kwo ma kwo i polo copo timo oxidize ni kadhu kud i mako oxygen (O2). Enzymes eni gibedo ikind oxidoreductases man gicopo timo tic matung tung calu aromatic ring hydroxylation (mono- nyo dihydroxylation), dehydrogenation man aromatic ring cleavage. Piny ma ju nwango kud i timo eni gitiye i rwom ma malu mi oxidation man gi yot ni dwoko piny nikadhu kud i yore mi carbon (Phale et al., 2020). Enzymes ma ni i yore mi nyothre jukoro ni gi copo nyayu peko. Tic pa enzymes eni utiye piny mandha nyo nok ka jupidho cells iwi piny ma yot ma calu glucose nyo organic acids. Table 3 nyuthu enzymes matung tung (oxygenases, hydrolases, dehydrogenases, oxidases, man mukende mapol) ma timo tic i metabolism pa naphthalene man piny ma wok kud i iye.
Table 3. Kite pa enzymes ma nyayu nyoth pa naphthalene man piny ma wok kud i iye.
Somo pa radioisotope (18O2) unyutho nia medo pa O2 i aromatic rings ku oxygenases ubedo timo ma pire tek uloyu i timo biodegradation pa compound (Hayaishi et al., 1955; Mason et al., 1955). Medu pa atom acel mi oxygen (O) kud i oxygen (O2) i substrate ucaku ku endogenous nyo exogenous monooxygenases (ma julwongo bende hydroxylases). Atom mange mi oxygen udoko pii. Exogenous monooxygenases dwoko piny flavin ku NADH nyo NADPH, ento in endomonooxygenases flavin dwoko piny ku substrate. Kabedo pa hydroxylation kelo tung tung mi yubu piny. Ku lapor, salicylate 1-hydroxylase hydroxylates salicylic acid i C1 position, ma uketho catechol. Icing ling acel, multicomponent salicylate 5-hydroxylase (ma tye ku reductase, ferredoxin, man oxygenase subunits) hydroxylates salicylic acid i C5 position, ma uketho gentisic acid (Yamamoto et al., 1965).
Dioxygenases uketho O2 atoms ario i substrate. Nimakere ku piny ma juyubu, jupoko gi i ring hydroxylating dioxygenases man ring cleaving dioxygenases. Ring hydroxylating dioxygenases loko aromatic substrates ni cis-dihydrodiols (e.g., naphthalene) man gi nyai ikind bacteria. Nitundu kawoni, junyutho nia piny ma kwo ma tye ku ring hydroxylating dioxygenases copo dongo iwi piny ma tung tung ma nyai, man enzymes eni jupoko gi ni NDO (naphthalene), toluene dioxygenase (TDO, toluene), man biphenyl dioxygenase (BPDO, biphenyl). NDO ku BPDO zo copo ketho oxidation ario man side chain hydroxylation pa polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (toluene, nitrotoluene, xylene, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, biphenyl, fluorene, indole, methylnaphthalene, naphthalene, anthrenethrenethreneth, acetophenone, etc.) (Boyd and Sheldrake, 1998; Phale et al., 2020). NDO ubedo piny ma timo tic ku oxidoreductase, ferredoxin, man oxygenase (Gibson and Subramanian, 1984; Resnick et al., 1996). The catalytic unit pa NDO utiye ku α subunit malac man β subunit ma nok ma juketho i α3β3. NDO utiye ikind dul madit pa oxygenases man α-subunit pare utiye ku Rieske site [2Fe-2S] man mononuclear non-heme iron, ma nyutho substrate specificity pa NDO (Parales et al., 1998). Pol kare, i rwom acel mi catalytic, electrons aryo kud i dwoko piny pa pyridine nucleotide juwodho gi i Fe(II) ion i kabedo ma tiyo nikadhu kud i reductase, ferredoxin man kabedo mi Rieske. Reducing equivalents ketho molecular oxygen timo tic, ma en e piny ma pire tek pi substrate dihydroxylation (Ferraro et al., 2005). Nitundu kawoni, NDOs manok kende re ma juyubu man juporo kugi maber kud i kit matung tung man kit ma juyubu kudo ikum yore mi nyoth pa naphthalene judaru ponjo ikumgi (Resnick et al., 1996; Parales et al., 1998; Karlsson et al., 2003). Ring-cleaving dioxygenases (endo- nyo ortho-ring-cleaving enzymes man exodiol- nyo meta-ring-cleaving enzymes) timo tic ikum hydroxylated aromatic compounds. Ku lapor, ortho-ring-cleaving dioxygenase utiye catechol-1,2-dioxygenase, ento meta-ring-cleaving dioxygenase utiye catechol-2,3-dioxygenase (Kojima et al., 1961; Nozaki et al., 1968). Mi medo ikum oxygenases matung tung, dehydrogenases matung tung utiye ma timo dehydrogenation pa aromatic dihydrodiols, alcohols man aldehydes man tiyo ku NAD+/NADP+ calu electron acceptors, ma gitiye enzymes moko ma pire tek ma tiyo i metabolism (Gibson and Subramanian, 1984; Shaw and Farayama, 1999; Farayama et al., et al. 2020).
Enzymes calu hydrolases (esterases, amidases) utiye dul mir aryo ma pire tek pa enzymes ma tiyo ku pii pi poko covalent bonds man nyutho broad substrate specificity. Carbaryl hydrolase man hydrolases mukende nen calu piny ma nwangire i periplasm (transmembrane) i kind ju ma gibedo i Gram-negative bacteria (Kamini et al., 2018). Carbaryl utiye ku amide man ester linkage; kumeno, ecopu bedu hydrolyzed ku esterase nyo amidase mi yubu 1-naphthol. Carbaryl in Rhizobium rhizobium strain AC10023 man Arthrobacter strain RC100 jular jukoro nia gitimo tic calu esterase man amidase, kubang wadi. Carbaryl in Arthrobacter strain RC100 de timo tic calu amidase. RC100 unyutho nya ecopo nyayu yath angwen pa N-methylcarbamate ma calu carbaryl, methomyl, mefenamic acid man XMC (Hayaatsu et al., 2001). Juwacu nia CH in Pseudomonas sp. C5pp copo timo tic iwi carbaryl (100% tic) man 1-naphthyl acetate (36% tic), ento ungo iwi 1-naphthylacetamide, ma nyutho nia etiye esterase (Trivedi et al., 2016).
Somo mi biochemical, kit ma enzyme timo kudo tic, man nyang ikum genes unyutho nia naphthalene degradation genes utiye ku dul ario ma copo loko nyo "operons": nah (the "yo ma malu", ma loko naphthalene ni salicylic acid) man sal (the "yo ma piny", ma loko salicylic pathway ni carbon catechol acid). Salicylic acid ku analogues pare copo timo tic calu inducers (Shamsuzzaman ku Barnsley, 1974). Ka glucose nyo organic acids utiye, operon judwoko piny. Cal mir 5 nyutho kit ma naphthalene unyothere kudu (i kit operon). Lembe mapol ma juloko/kit pa nah gene (ndo/pah/dox) jukoro man junwangu nia gitiye ku rwom ma malu (90%) ikind kit Pseudomonas zo (Abbasian et al., 2016). Genes pa naphthalene upstream pathway juyike i rwom ma jumoko kudu calu ma ju nyuthu i cal mir 5A. Gene mange, nahQ, de jukoro nia etiye ikind naphthalene metabolism man ebedo ikind nahC ku nahE, ento tic pare mandha podi ungeyere ngo. Kumeno bende, nahY gene, ma timo naphthalene-sensitive chemotaxis, junwange i thenge mabor pa nah operon i dul moko. I Ralstonia sp., U2 gene ma ketho glutathione S-transferase (gsh) nwange ni utiye ikind nahAa ku nahAb ento eketho ngo tic pa naphthalene (Zylstra et al., 1997).
Cal 5. Yub pa gene man tung tung ma juneno i saa mi nyoth pa naphthalene ikind kit bacteria; (A) Upper naphthalene pathway, metabolism pa naphthalene ni salicylic acid; (B) Yo ma piny pa naphthalene, salicylic acid nikadhu kud i catechol ni yore mi carbon ma dit; (C) salicylic acid via gentisate to the central carbon pathway.
"Yo ma piny" (sal operon) pol kare utiye nahGTHINLMOKJ man loko salicylate ni pyruvate man acetaldehyde nikadhu kud i catechol metaring cleavage pathway. NahG gene (ma nyutho salicylate hydroxylase) junwango ni jugwoko i thum pa operon (cal 5B). Ka juporo ku naphthalene-degrading strains mukende, i P. putida CSV86 nah ku sal operons gibedo karacelu man gibedo karacelu (maromo 7.5 kb). I kind bacteria moko ma Gram-negative, calu Ralstonia sp. U2, Polaromonas naphthalenivorans CJ2, man P. putida AK5, naphthalene juyike calu jamb tic ma pire tek nikadhu kud i yore mi gentisate (i ayi pa sgp/nag operon). Gene cassette nenre i ayi nagAaGHAbAcAdBFCQEDJI, kama nagR (ma nyutho LysR-type regulator) utiye i thenge ma malu (lanyut 5C).
Carbaryl umondo i kind carbon cycle nikadhu kud i tic pa 1-naphthol, 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene, salicylic acid, man gentisic acid (lanyut 3). Ni lubre ku lembe ma juponjo ikum gene man metabolic, jupoko yore eni ni "upstream" (lok pa carbaryl ni salicylic acid), "middle" (lok pa salicylic acid ni gentisic acid), man "piny" (lok pa gentisic acid ni central carbon pathway intermediates) (Sing et al., 2013). Ponji pa C5pp (supercontig A, 76.3 kb) unyutho nia mcbACBDEF gene utiye ikind loko pa carbaryl ni salicylic acid, man mcbIJKL i loko salicylic acid ni gentisic acid, man mcbOQP i loko pa central genmaratisic acid man intermediates ( pyruvate, Trivedi et al., 2016) (Figure 6).
Jukoro nia enzymes ma timo tic i nyoth pa aromatic hydrocarbons (ma uketho i iye naphthalene man salicylic acid) copo bedu ma juyubu ku piny ma rwate man jujuko ku piny ma yot ma calu glucose nyo organic acids (Shingler, 2003; Phale et al., 2019, 2019). Ikind yore matung tung mi tic pa naphthalene man piny ma wok kud i iye, kit ma naphthalene ku carbaryl timo kudo lembe moko jutimo i kume. Pi naphthalene, genes i yo ma malu man ma piny juyike ku NahR, LysR-type trans-acting positive regulator. Etie piny ma mitere pi kelo nah gene ku salicylic acid man nyuthu pare ma malu (Yen man Gunsalus, 1982). Bende, somo unyutho nia integrative host factor (IHF) man XylR (sigma 54-dependent transcriptional regulator) de pigi tek pi tic pa genes in naphthalene metabolism (Ramos et al., 1997). Somo unyutho nia enzymes mi catechol meta-ring opening pathway, ma julwongo catechol 2,3-dioxygenase, juyike i bedo pa naphthalene man/nyo salicylic acid (Basu et al., 2006). Somo unyutho nia enzymes mi catechol ortho-ring opening pathway, ma julwongo catechol 1,2-dioxygenase, juyike i bedo pa benzoic acid man cis,cis-muconate (Parsek et al., 1994; Tover et al., 2001).
I strain C5pp, genes abic, mcbG, mcbH, mcbN, mcbR man mcbS, gicoyo regulators ma gibedo i thek pa LysR/TetR pa transcriptional regulators ma gicungo pi jwigo nyoth pa carbaryl. Gene mcbG ma rom rom junwango ni etiye ku winjiri madit ku LysR-type regulator PhnS (58% amino acid identity) ma nwangire i phenanthrene metabolism in Burkholderia RP00725 (Trivedi et al., 2016). Gene mi mcbH junwango ni etiye ikind yore (lok pa salicylic acid ni gentisic acid) man etiye pa LysR-type transcriptional regulator NagR/DntR/NahR in Pseudomonas man Burkholderia. Ju mi ot eni juwacu nia gingeyo salicylic acid calu molecule ma pire tek pi nyayu genes ma nyayu ret. Icing ling acel, gene adek, mcbN, mcbR man mcbS, ma gibedo i LysR man TetR type transcriptional regulators, junwango gi i yo ma piny (gentisate-central carbon pathway metabolites).
I prokaryotes, yore mi loko gene (nwangu, loko, nyo dwoko) nikadhu kud i plasmids, transposons, prophages, genomic islands, man integrative conjugative elements (ICE) gibedo the lembe madit ma nyayu plasticity i genomes pa bacteria, ma kelo nwangu nyo rwenyo pa tic/kit moko. Eweku bacteria ni lokore pio pio i kwo matung tung mi kabedu, ma mio bero mi loko kwo pa piny ni ju ma gikwo i iye, calu ve nyotho piny ma leng. Aloka loka mi tic pa piny timore ni kadhu kud i yubu operons mi nyothre, yore migi mi doro, man kit pa enzyme, ma konyo nyothre pa piny ma tung tung (Nojiri et al., 2004; Phale et al., 2019, 2020). Gene cassettes pi nyoth pa naphthalene junwange ni nwangire iwi piny matung tung ma wotho calu plasmids (conjugative man non-conjugative), transposons, genomes, ICEs, man dul pa kit bacteria matung tung (lanyut 5). I Pseudomonas G7, nah ku sal operons pa plasmid NAH7 jukyewo gi i yore marom man gibedo thenge mi transposon ma rac ma mitu transposase Tn4653 pi timo tic (Sota et al., 2006). I Pseudomonas strain NCIB9816-4, gene ne nwangire i conjugative plasmid pDTG1 calu operons aryo (ma romo 15 kb tung tung) ma jugoro i yore matung tung (Dennis ku Zylstra, 2004). I Pseudomonas putida strain AK5, non-conjugative plasmid pAK5 uketho enzyme ma timo tic mi nyotho naphthalene nikadhu kud i yore mi gentisate (Izmalkova et al., 2013). I Pseudomonas strain PMD-1, nah operon utiye iwi chromosome, ento sal operon utiye iwi conjugative plasmid pMWD-1 (Zuniga et al., 1981). Ento, i Pseudomonas stutzeri AN10, naphthalene degradation genes (nah man sal operons) zo utiye iwi chromosome man juporo gi ni kadhu kud i transposition, recombination, man rearrangement events (Bosch et al., 2000). I Pseudomonas sp. CSV86, nah man sal operons nwangire i genome i ayi pa ICE (ICECSV86). Kit yub ne jugwoko ku tRNAGly ma lubo ku dwoko wange ma nyutho kabedo mi dwoko/moko (attR man attL) man integrase ma calu phage ma nwangre i thenge ario pa tRNAGly, ma kumeno nen calu ICEclc element (ICEclcB13 in Pseudomonas knackmusii pi chlorocatechol degradation). Jukoro nia genes iwi ICE copo bedu ma juloko ku conjugation ku frequency ma nok akeca (10-8), ma kumeno ecopo dwoko piny ma rac ni ju ma gi gamu (Basu and Phale, 2008; Phale et al., 2019).
Pol pa genes ma nyayu nyoth pa carbaryl utiye iwi plasmids. Arthrobacter sp. RC100 utiye ku plasmids adek (pRC1, pRC2 man pRC300) ma plasmids aryo, pRC1 man pRC2, gi ketho enzymes ma loko carbaryl ni gentisate. Icing ling acel, enzymes ma timo tic i loko gentisate ni central carbon metabolites utiye iwi chromosome (Hayaatsu et al., 1999). Bacteria mi thek pa Rhizobium. Kit AC100, ma jutiyo kudu pi loko carbaryl ni 1-naphthol, utiye ku plasmid pAC200, ma tingo cehA gene ma loko CH calu dul pa Tnceh transposon ma jugoro ku insertion element-like sequences (istA man istB) (Hashimoto et al., 2002). I Sphingomonas strain CF06, carbaryl degradation gene juyio ni utiye in plasmids abic: pCF01, pCF02, pCF03, pCF04, man pCF05. DNA homology pa plasmids eni utiye malo, ma nyutho bedo pa gene duplication event (Feng et al., 1997). I carbaryl-degrading symbiont ma uketho i iye kit Pseudomonas aryo, strain 50581 utiye ku conjugative plasmid pCD1 (50 kb) ma ketho mcd carbaryl hydrolase gene, man conjugative plasmid in strain 50552 utiye ku 1-naphthode-engrading engradume (Chadu Chaudhry, 1991). I Achromobacter strain WM111, mcd furadan hydrolase gene utiye iwi 100 kb plasmid (pPDL11). Gene eni unyutho nia etiye iwi plasmids matung tung (100, 105, 115 nyo 124 kb) i bacteria matung tung kud i kabedu matung tung (Parekh et al., 1995). I Pseudomonas sp. C5pp, genes zo ma timo carbaryl degradation utiye i genome ma romo 76.3 kb mi sequence (Trivedi et al., 2016). Ponji pa genome (6.15 Mb) unyutho bedo pa 42 MGEs man 36 GEIs, ma 17 MGEs nwangire i supercontig A (76.3 kb) ku asymmetric G+C content (54–60 mol%), ma nyutho nya ecopo bedu ni gene transfer events (Trivedi et al., 2016). P. putida XWY-1 nyutho kit ma rom pa carbaryl-degrading genes, ento genes eni nwangire i plasmid (Zhu et al., 2019).
Mi medo ikum tic maber pa metabolic i rwom pa biochemical man genomic, microorganisms bende nyuthu kit mange nyo dwokowang lembe calu chemotaxis, cell surface modification properties, compartmentalization, preferential utilization, biosurfactant production, etc., ma konyogi ni dwoko piny maber pa aromatic pollutants i kabedu ma rac (lanyut 7).
Cal 7. Yore matung tung mi dwoko wang lembe pa bacteria ma nyayu lyethu pa hydrocarbon pi nyayu piny ma rac pa piny ma woko.
Chemotactic responses nen calu piny ma nyayu nyoth pa piny ma rac i kabedu ma rac. (2002) unyutho nia chemotaxis pa Pseudomonas sp. G7 ni naphthalene umedire rwom pa nyoth pa naphthalene i pii. Kit G7 ma nen ungo unyayu naphthalene pio pio uloyu ma sagu chemotaxis-deficient mutant strain. NahY protein (538 amino acids with membrane topology) junwange ni co-transcribed ku metacleavage pathway genes iwi NAH7 plasmid, man calu chemotaxis transducers, protein eni nen ni tiyo calu chemoreceptor pi naphthalene degradation (Grimm and Harwood 1997). Somo mange pa Hansel et al. (2009) unyutho nia protein utiye chemotactic, ento rwom pare mi nyothre utiye malo. (2011) unyutho dwokowang pa Pseudomonas (P. putida) ni gaseous naphthalene, kama gas phase diffusion ukelo mol pa naphthalene i cells, ma ucungo ikum chemotactic response pa cells. Ju ma timo sayusac gitiyo ku kura pa chemotactic eni ni yubu microbes ma copo medo kadhiri pa nyothre. Somo moko unyutho nia yore mi chemosensory bende doro tic pa cell mange calu poko pa cell, yub pa cell cycle, man yiku pa biofilm, ma konyo ni jwigo kadhiri pa nyothre. Ento, tic ku piny eni (chemotaxis) pi nyayu piny maber utiye ku peko madwong. Peko madongo utiye: (a) paralogous receptors matung tung ungiyo compounds/ligands marom; (b) bedo pa piny mukende ma mako piny, niwacu, tropism ma tek; (c) tung tung madit mi rwom pa lembe ma juwinjo i dul pa receptor acel; man (d) bedo mbe pa ngec ikum jamb kum madongo (Ortega et al., 2017; Martin-Mora et al., 2018). Saa moko, nyoth pa aromatic hydrocarbons nyayu metabolites/intermediates madwong, ma copo bedu chemotactic pi dul acel pa bacteria ento repulsive pi mukende, ma medo bedo tek i tic. Mi nyang ikum tic pa ligands (aromatic hydrocarbons) ku chemical receptors, wacwio hybrid sensor proteins (PcaY, McfR, man NahY) ni ketho sensor man signaling domains pa Pseudomonas putida man Escherichia coli, ma ketho receptors pi aromatic acids, TCA intermediates, naphthalene, man al. 2019).
I the telowic pa naphthalene man polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), kit ma membrane pa bacteria man bedo pa microorganisms timo aloka loka madit. Somo unyutho nia naphthalene nyayu peko i tic pa acyl chain nikadhu kud i tic ma nyayu pii, ma medo lyethu man pii pa membrane (Sikkema et al., 1995). Mi juku adwogi marac eni, bacteria loko rwom pa pii pa membrane ni loko ratio man fatty acid composition ikind iso/anteiso branched-chain fatty acids man isomerizing cis-unsaturated fatty acids i trans-isomers (Heipieper ku de Bont, 1994). I Pseudomonas stutzeri ma jupito ku yath mi naphthalene, wel pa fatty acid ma upong ku ma unsaturated umedire nicaku 1.1 nicidho 2.1, ento i Pseudomonas JS150 wel eni umedire nicaku 7.5 nicidho 12.0 (Mrozik et al., 2004). Ka jupidho iwi naphthalene, Achromobacter KAs 3-5 cells unyutho cell aggregation ikum naphthalene crystals man dwoko piny pa cell surface charge (nicaku i -22.5 nicidho -2.5 mV) ku cytoplasmic condensation man vacuolization, ma nyutho aloka loka i cell structure man cell surface properties (Mohapatra et al., 2019). Kadi bende aloka loka mi cell/surface utiye ku winjiri ku rwom maber pa aromatic pollutants, yore mi bioengineering ma pire tek podi juyubu ngo maber. Lokruok pa kit pa cell tiye piny ma jutiyo kudu ungo pi yubu tic pa kwo (Volke ku Nikel, 2018). Kwanyo pa genes ma nyayu poko pa cell kelo aloka loka i kite ma cell nen kudu. Kwanyo pa genes ma nyayu poko pa cell kelo aloka loka i kite ma cell nen kudu. I Bacillus subtilis, cell septum protein SepF unyutho nia etiye ikind yiku septum man mitere pi poko pa cell, ento epe gene ma pire tek. Kwanyo pa genes ma ketho peptide glycan hydrolases in Bacillus subtilis ukelo dongo pa cell, medo dongo pa rwom, man medo kero mi yubu enzyme (Cui et al., 2018).
Poko yore mi nyoth pa carbaryl juyero ni kelo nyoth maber pa Pseudomonas strains C5pp ku C7 (Kamini et al., 2018). Juyero nia carbaryl jutero i kabedo mi periplasmic nikadhu kud i septum mi membrane ma woko man/nyo nikadhu kud i diffusible porins. CH ubedo enzyme ma timo tic ku carbaryl ni 1-naphthol, ma ubedo maber, ma maru pii man ma rac. CH utiye i periplasm man etiye ku rwom ma lapiny pi carbaryl, ma eketho 1-naphthol bedo, ma eketho bedo pare i cell man edwoko piny rac pa cell (Kamini et al., 2018). Adwogi pa 1-naphthol jutere i cytoplasm nikadhu kud i membrane ma iye ku poko man/nyo poko, man edoko hydroxylated ni 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene ku high-affinity enzyme 1NH pi medo metabolism i yo mi carbon.
Kadi bende microorganisms gitiye ku copo mi nyayu peko i kum xenobiotic carbon sources, rwom mi tic kugi (niwacu, tic ku piny ma yot ma sagu carbon sources ma tek) utiye gin ma nyayu peko madit ikum biodegradation. Bedo tiye man tic ku piny ma yot ma kelo carbon dwoko piny genes ma ketho enzymes ma nyayu peko ma tek/ma dhanu maru ngo calu PAHs. Lanyuth ma juponjo maber utiye nia ka glucose ku lactose jupoko i Escherichia coli, glucose tiyo maber uloyu lactose (Jacob ku Monod, 1965). Pseudomonas jubedu ka wacu niya nyayu ret ikum kit PAHs man xenobiotic compounds calu piny ma kelo carbon. Kite ma jutiyo kudu ku carbon source in Pseudomonas utiye organic acids > glucose > aromatic compounds (Hylemon and Phibbs, 1972; Collier et al., 1996). Ento, lembe moko utiye ma ukoc. Ber pa lembe, Pseudomonas sp. CSV86 nyutho rwom pare ma ukoc ma tiyo ku aromatic hydrocarbons (benzoic acid, naphthalene, etc.) kakare ni glucose man co-metabolizes aromatic hydrocarbons ku organic acids (Basu et al., 2006). I bacteria eni, genes pi nyotho man tero aromatic hydrocarbons judwokogi piny kadi nang epe ku piny mange ma nyayu carbon calu glucose nyo organic acids. Ka jupidho i glucose man aromatic hydrocarbons medium, juneno ni genes pi tero glucose man metabolism ubedo piny, aromatic hydrocarbons jutiyo kudu i log phase mir acel, man glucose jutiyo kudu i log phase mir aryo (Basu et al., 2006; Choudhary et al., 2017). Icing ling acel, bedo tiye pa organic acids uketho ngo tic pa aromatic hydrocarbon metabolism, pieno bacteria eni jubekuro ni ebed strain ma jucopo ponjo pi biodegradation (Phale et al., 2020).
Jung'eyo maber nia hydrocarbon biotransformation copo nyayu peko mi oxidative man upregulation pa antioxidant enzymes i microorganisms. Naphthalene ma rwinyo ngo maber i cell ma rwinyo man i bedo pa piny ma rac kelo yik pa kit oxygen (ROS) (Kang et al. 2006). Calu naphthalene-degrading enzymes utiye ku iron-sulfur clusters, i thenge mi oxidative stress, iron in heme man iron-sulfur proteins bibedo oxidized, ma bi kelo inactivation pa protein. Ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase (Fpr), karacelu ku superoxide dismutase (SOD), timo reversible redox reaction ikind NADP+/NADPH ku molecule aryo pa ferredoxin nyo flavodoxin, ma uketho ROS man dwoko iron-sulfur center i the oxidative stress (Li et al. 2006). Jukoro nia Fpr ku SodA (SOD) i Pseudomonas copo bedu ni piny ma wok kud i oxidative stress, man tic pa SOD man catalase ma medu nenre i Pseudomonas angwen (O1, W1, As1, man G1) i kare ma gidongo i thenge mi naphthalene (Kang et al., 2006). Somo unyutho nia medu pa antioxidants calu ascorbic acid nyo ferrous iron (Fe2+) copo medo dongo pa naphthalene. Kinde ma Rhodococcus erythropolis udongo in naphthalene medium, kyeu pa oxidative stress-related cytochrome P450 genes ikinde sodA (Fe/Mn superoxide dismutase), sodC (Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase), man recA umedire (Sazykin et al., 2019). Poro wel pa proteomic pa Pseudomonas cells ma jupidho i naphthalene unyutho nia medo pa proteins matung tung ma mako dwokowang pa oxidative stress ubedo yore mi daru peko (Herbst et al., 2013).
Jular jukoro nia piny ma kwo ma nok nok gi kelo biosurfactants i the tic pa hydrophobic carbon sources. Surfactants eni gibedo amphiphilic surface active compounds ma copo ketho aggregates i kind oil-water nyo air-water interfaces. Eni ketho pseudo-solubilization man konyo adsorption pa aromatic hydrocarbons, ma kelo biodegradation maber (Rahman et al., 2002). Ni lembe eni, biosurfactants jutiyu kudu lee i tic matung tung. Medu pa kemikol surfactants nyo biosurfactants i cultures pa bacteria copo medo kero man rwom pa hydrocarbon degradation. Ikind biosurfactants, rhamnolipids ma juyubu ku Pseudomonas aeruginosa jutimo igi sayusac man juporo kugi (Hisatsuka et al., 1971; Rahman et al., 2002). Mi medo, kit biosurfactants mukende uketho i iye lipopeptides (mucins kud i Pseudomonas fluorescens), emulsifier 378 (wok kud i Pseudomonas fluorescens) (Rosenberg man Ron, 1999), trehalose disaccharide lipids kud i Rhodococcus (Ramdahl, 1988), lichenlus man Sacillus kud i Hall, 2002), man surfactant kud i Bacillus subtilis (Siegmund ku Wagner, 1991) man Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (Zhi et al., 2017). Jam tic ma tek eni junyutho ni dwoko piny kero pa piny nicaku 72 dynes/cm ni piny 30 dynes/cm, ma weko hydrocarbon bedo maber. Jukoro nia Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Rhodococcus, Burkholderia man kit bacteria mange copo nyayu rhamnolipid man glycolipid-based biosurfactants matung tung ka jupidho gi i naphthalene man methylnaphthalene media (Kanga et al., 1997; Puntus et al., 2005). Pseudomonas maltophilia CSV89 copo wodhu extracellular biosurfactant Biosur-Pm ka jupidho iwi piny ma leng calu naphthoic acid (Phale et al., 1995). Kinetics pa Biosur-Pm unyutho nia yik pare utiye dongo- man pH-dependent process. Junwangu niya wel pa Biosur-Pm ma juyubu ku cells i pH ma rwinyo ubedo malo uloyu i pH 8.5. Cells ma jupito i pH 8.5 ubedu ma maru pii man ubedu ku miti madit pi aromatic man aliphatic compounds ma sagu cell ma jupito i pH 7.0. I Rhodococcus spp. N6, ratio ma malu pa carbon ku nitrogen (C:N) man rwom pa iron utiye piny maber pi yubu extracellular biosurfactants (Mutalik et al., 2008). Tem jutimo pi medo kero pa biosurfactants (surfactins) ni kadhu kud i yubu kit man fermentation. Ento, titer pa surfactant in culture medium utiye piny (1.0 g/L), ma kelo peko pi yubu piny madwong (Jiao et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2019). Pieno, yore mi genetic engineering jutiyo kudu pi medo kero pa biosynthesis. Ento, loko pare mi tic tek pi dit pa operon (∼25 kb) man cik ma tek pa quorum sensing system (Jiao et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2019). Pol pa aloka loka mi genetic engineering jutimo i Bacillus bacteria, ma pire tek ni medo rwom pa surfactin ni loko promoter (srfA operon), ma weko surfactin export protein YerP man regulatory factors ComX man PhrC (Jiao et al., 2017). Ento, yore mi loko genes eni gi timo aloka loka acel nyo manok kende man podi juyubu ngo i tic mi cato wil. Pieno, somo mukende ikum yore mi timo piny maber ikum ngec piretek.
Somo pa PAH biodegradation jutimo pol kare i thenge mi laboratory. Ento, ikabedu ma rac nyo i kabedu ma rac, piny madwong ma kwo man kwo (lyeth, pH, yamo, bedo pa cam, bedo pa piny, xenobiotics mukende, juku piny ma wok, man mukende mapol) junyutho ni loko man loko kero pa microorganisms.
Liet pa piny utiye ku adwogi madit ikum PAH. Ka lyethu umedire, dwong pa oxygen ma unyai udok piny, ma nyayu peko i kum kit ma piny ma kwo timo kudu, pi eno gimito oxygen ma nyai calu acel ikin substrates pi oxygenases ma timo hydroxylation nyo ring cleavage reactions. Pol kare juneno nia lyethu ma malu loko PAHs ma dit ni piny ma rac, man eketho kwo pa piny doko rac (Muller et al., 1998).
Junwango nia kabedo mapol ma PAH upong i iye utiye ku pH ma lee dit, calu kabedo ma cido ku acid mine (pH 1-4) man kabedo ma cido ku gas/coal gasification ku alkaline leachate (pH 8-12). Lembe eni copo nyayu peko madit ikum yub pa biodegradation. Pieno, mapodi jutiyo ku microorganisms pi bioremediation, juyero ni juyik pH ni medo kemikol maber (ku kero mi dwoko piny ma nyai) calu ammonium sulfate nyo ammonium nitrate pi ngom ma alkaline nyo liming ku calcium carbonate nyo magnesium carbonate pi acid sites (Bowta and Gulen et al. 1995; Sar 2020).
Oxygen ma wok i kabedu ma two ne utiye piny ma nyayu peko i PAH biodegradation. Ni lembe pa redox mi kabedu, in situ bioremediation processes pol kare mito oxygen ma wok kudi woko (tilling, air sparging, man chemical addition) (Pardieck et al., 1992). Odenkranz et al. (1996) unyutho nia medo magnesium peroxide (piny ma wodhu oxygen) i pii ma cido copo konyo BTEX compounds. Somo mange uketho i iye nyoth pa phenol ku BTEX i pii ma cido ku ketho sodium nitrate man yiku vur mi kwanyo piny pi nwangu bioremediation maber (Bewley ku Webb, 2001).