Mapodi two unyothu two bilion 3 nyo makadhu, yen eni ukonyu ni gieru ngom mi Amerika ma dongo. Pi ni dwoko dwong migi ma rwinyo, waromo nwangu man ni yiko piny ma cwio.
I kare moko i 1989, Herbert Darling onwango lwongo: Jadwar moko uwacu ire niya enwangu yen mabor mi Amerika i ngom pa Darling i Zor Valley i western New York. Darling ung'eyo niya chestnuts ubedo yen acel ma pire tek uloyu i kabedu ne. En de engeyo niya thwol moko ma rac uketho lei eca utho pi oro ma kadhu miya acel ku nusu. Kinde ma ewinjo ripot pa jadwar ikum neno yen ma kwo, kor yen ne ubedo fut aryo man utuc i ot ma goro abic, ebedo ku jiji. "Angeyo ngo ka ageno nya engeyo ango," Darling uwacu.
Kinde ma Darling unwangu yen ne, ubedu calu eneno ngati moko ma dhanu ungiyu ngo. Ewecu: "Ebedo yot man maber mi timo lanyuth-ebedo ber mandha." Ento Darling de uneno nia yen ne ube tho. Nicaku i acaki pa 1900s, edaru wok ku two marom, ma jubyeko ni edaru tho pa dhanu bilion 3 nyo makadhu kud i two ma kumeno. Eni ubedo two ma kwong ma dhanu wok kud i iye ma nyayu peko i kum yen i lembe mi kare eni. Darling upenu, tek ecopo gwoko ngo yen eca, ecopu gwoko kodhi pare. Peko acel kende utiye: yen ne timo piny moko ope kum yen mange mi chestnut epe ma copo nyayu lum i iye.
Darling ubedo jaradiru ma tiyo ku yore pa jaradiru mi cobo peko. I Dwi mir Abusiel mukende, kinde ma thiwe ma nya aceng ucungo iwi lum macol pa yen, Darling upongu jamb tedu ku shot powder, ma juwodho kud i thiwe ma co pa yen mange ma eponjo, man ecidho yo malu. Utingo sawa acel ku nusu. Ebolo yen ne kud i ndege ma jupango. (Etelo wi kampuni mi gedo maber ma copo culu sente madwong.) Tic eni upodhi. I oro mukende, Darling utemo kendu. I kare eni, en ku wode gi tingo jamb tedu iwi got man gi gero ot ma bor pare futi 80 i kind yenga ario. Jahera para uidho iwi lum man ewotho thiwe ku thiwe ma calu thwol iwi yen mange mi chestnut.
I thum pa oro eca, jang yen pa Darling unyayu lum ma umu ku lum macol. Kuth eni ubedo ma gwai man ma bit ma jucopo paru gi ni cacti. Kac eca epe, nuts utiye 100, ento Darling upidho moko man eketho gen. En ku jarimbe moko de giweco ku Charles Maynard man William Powell, ju ario ma gisomo lembe ikum yen i State University of New York School of Environmental Science and Forestry in Syracuse (Chuck ku Bill utho). I kare ma ukadhu eni, gicaku tic mi sayu lembe iwi chestnut ma wel migi nok. Darling umiyo igi chestnuts moko man epenju ju ma gisomo lembe iwi ngom ka gicopo tiyo kudu pi dwoko gi cen. Darling uwacu: "Eni nen calu piny maber akeca." "Theng ngom mi Amerika ma yo piny zo." Ento, oro manok i ngeye, yen pare utho.
Nicaku ma ju Europe ucaku bedo i ngom mi Amerika ma yo malu, lembe ikum lum mi ngom eca ubedo lembe ma rwinyo. Ento, paru pa Darling kawoni dhanu mapol gineno ni ubedo acel ikin kare maber mi caku loko lembe – i acaki pa oro e, Templeton World Charity Foundation uketho Maynard ku Powell's The project umiyu pol pa lembe pare, man kero eni uketho juturo tic ma nok ma ukwayu sente ma kadhu $3 million. Ebedo mic madit uloyu ma jumiyo ni yunivasiti. Lembe ma ju ma gisomo ikum piny ma dhanu timo uketho ju ma gwoko kwo pa lei gi nen lembe manyen man ma sawa moko epe, nia yiko piny ma cwio ucwio nyutho ngo ni dwogo i podho mi Eden. Ento, ecopu bedu ni jolo tic ma wabedo kudu: jaradiru pa piny ceke man ngom.
Ith chestnut utiye mabor man lak, man nen calu pala ario ma rangi pa lum macol ma ucungo ikum ler ma ikin ith. I thenge acel, ith ario gicokiri ku lum. I thenge mange, gi bedo ku cing ma lac, ma pol kare ju goyo yo piny. Kite ma jukuro ngo eni ukadhu kud i kind lum macol man lum macol i lum, man paru pa ju ma giwotho iwi got uketho dhanu giparu, man epoi igi wotho migi i kind lum ma con ubedo ku yen madwong ma tek.
Ku kwan man ponji kende re ma wacopo nyang kudu ikum yen eni. Lucille Griffin, jatel wi tic mi American Chestnut Collaborator Foundation, ugoro nia keca ibineno chestnuts ma leng akeca ma i kare mi cwir, thiwe ma leng man ma nen iwi yen "calu pii ma mol iwi got", ma ucwalu poyo wic pa kwaru. I kare mi ngico, yen ne bipodho kendu, i kare eni ku lum ma nyai ma umo leng pa yen ne. "Kinde ma chestnuts udongo, acoko nusu pa bushel i kare mi ngico," Thoreau ma cwinye tek ukyewu i "Walden." "I kare meno, ubedu lembe ma nyangu dhanu lee dit niwothu i lum mi chestnut ma jik ungo i Lincoln i kare ne."
Chestnuts ubedo piny maber mandha. Muweko yen mi oak ma gipodho acorns kende ikind oro manok, yen mi chestnut nyayu nying yen madwong kubang oro. Chestnuts de yot ni camo: icopo kwanyo adila migi man icamu ma fodi jucamu ngo. (Tem tiyo ku acorns ma dwong ku tannins-nyo kud itim.) Dhanu ceke camu chestnuts: deer, squirrel, bear, bird, human. Jurufur giweko opego migi man gi medo kero i lum. I kare mi foc mi tho pa Kristu, gari ma upong ku lum ma julwongo ni chestnuts uai kud iwi got nicidho i adhura. Eyo, juwango gi ku mac. "Juwacu nia i kabedu moko, jurufur ginwangu sente madwong kud i wil mi chestnuts makadhu piny mukende mi fur," William L. Bray uwacu, jadit mir acel mi sukul ma Maynard ku Powell gitimo tic i iye. Jukyewo i 1915. Etiye yen pa dhanu, ma pol migi dongo i lum.
Bende emiyo piny madwong makadhu cam kende. Yen mi chestnut copo dongo nitundo futi 120, man futi 50 ma kwong eca jukwero ngo ku jang yen nyo jang yen. Eni ubedo lek pa ju ma tiyo ku yen. Kadok etiye ngo yen ma leng man ma tek, edongo pio pio, asaga ka edongo kendo ingey thum man etho ngo. Calu kero pa gari mi gari man yen mi simu ukadhu leng pa piny, Chestnut ukonyo ni gieru ngom mi Amerika ma dongo dongo. Kabedo mi gwoko lei, udi madongo man kanisa ma jugiero ku yen mi chestnuts podi ucungu; jagor moko i 1915 uketho nia eni ubedo yen ma jupodho lee i ngom mi Amerika.
I pol ngom mi yo piny-yen eca ucaku i Mississippi nitundo i Maine, man niai i dhu nam mi Atlantic nitundo i kulo mi Mississippi-chestnuts de utiye acel ikin gi. Ento i Appalachians, ubedu yen madit. Chestnuts bilion madwong gikwo iwi got eni.
Etie ber nia Fusarium wilt ucaku wok i New York, ma en e dhugola pa dhanu mapol mi Amerika. I 1904, two moko ma nyang ikume junwange iwi lum pa yen moko ma ubedu ka rwinyo i Bronx Zoo. Ju ma timo sayusac gi nwango oyot nya thwol ma nyayu two pa bacteria (ma julwongo ni Cryphonectria parasitica) utuc iwi yen ma jukelo kud i ngom mi Japan i acaki pa 1876. (Pol kare kare moko bedo nuti ikind kelo pa lei moko man nwangu pa peko moko.)
Ndhu ndhu dhanu i ngom mapol giwacu nia yen ube tho. I 1906, William A. Murrill, jabodho mi ngec pa lei i New York Botanical Garden, ugoro wil mir acel ikum two ne. Muriel onyuthu nia fungus eni nyayu two ma nya aceng macol iwi adila pa yen mi chestnut, ma weko edoko maleng i kor yen. Ka cam man pii dong copo mol ungo malu man piny i iye pa lum ithe lum, piny ceke ma ni malu pa tho bi tho.
Dhanu moko copo paru ngo-nyo gimito ngo dhanu mukende paru-yen moko ma rwinyo kud i lum. I 1911, Sober Paragon Chestnut Farm, dul pa awiya ma fodi gitie aradu i Pennsylvania, giyio nia two ne ubedo "ma sagu lworo kende." Bedo pi kare malac pa ju goro lembe ma timo ngo tic. Kabedo mi podho ne jugoro i 1913. Oru ario mukadho, Pennsylvania ulwongo judongo pa two chestnut, ma jumiyo igi twero mi tiyo ku US$275,000 (sente madit i kare meno), man giwacu nia jubiketho cik moko pi jwigo peko eni, ikinde utiye twero mi nyotho yen i ngom pa dhanu. Ju ma giponjo lembe ikum two giwacu niya juwodh yen mi chestnut zo kud i dhugola pa two madit ni kelo adwogi maber ikum mac. Ento edoko ni fungus eni copo cidho iwi yen ma epe ku two, man spores pare nwangu two kud i yamu, winy, lei makwiny man dhanu. Yub ne juweko.
I 1940, chestnuts madongo ope ma nwango two ne. Tin eni, wel pa billion pa dola udaru thum. Calu fusarium wilt copo kwo ngo i ngom, lak chestnut mediri ka dongo, man 400 million migi podi udong i lum. Ento, Fusarium wilt unwangu ka gwoko pii i yen mi oak kama ekwo i iye manangu etimo ngo peko madit ikum jadwong pare. Nicaku keca, edaru nyai pio pio ni lum manyen mi chestnut man epodho gi piny, pol kare ma podi gi tundo ngo i rwom mi dongo.
Ju ma timo tic mi yen ginwangu yore mukende: oak, pine, walnut, man ash. Tanning, tic mange madit ma jeku ikum yen mi chestnut, uloko ni piny ma juyubu ku cing. Pi jurufur mapol ma can, piny moko mbe ma gicopo loko: yen mange moko mbe ma copo mio ni jurufur man lei migi calories man protein ma nwang, ma gen man madwong. Chestnut blight jucopo wacu niya edaru timo pa dhanu mi Appalachians ma timo tic migi gigi, ma ketho dhanu mi kabedu ne gibedo ku yer acel: cidho i golo makaa nyo cidho cen. Jagor mi lembe mukadho Donald Davis ukyewu i 2005 kumae: "Pi tho pa chestnuts, ng'om zoo utho, man eweko kura mi kwo ma ubedu nuti i Appalachian Mountains pi oro ma kadhu 400."
Powell udongo bor ku Appalachians man chestnuts. Won ot pare utiyo i Air Force man edok i pacu pare: Indiana, Florida, Germany, man yo piny mi Maryland. Kadi bende ebedo tic pare i New York, wec pare ubedo ku lemandha pa Midwest man lembe ma nen ungo pa South. Kite pare ma yot man yore pare mi yiko bongo gikonyore, ma nyuthu jins ma nen calu rangi pa kor bongu ma jik ungo. Lembe ma emaru uloyu utiye "wow".
Powell ubemito edok daktari pa lei nitundu japonji moko mi genetics ukwoni gen mi fur manyen, ma leng ma ucungo iwi yen ma juloko gene ma copo nyayu kero pare gire mi juku lei man two. "Aparu niya, wow, eber ungo ni yubu yen ma copo gwoko kwo peri kud i kum lei ma rac, man ibemito ngo ipong yath moko ci ikum gi?" Powell uwacu. "Eyo, ng'om zoo lubo ngo paru marom."
Kinde ma Powell utuc i Utah State University i 1983, ebedo ku paru moko ope. Ento, edok emondo i ot mi yath pa jangeyo lembe ikum lei, man ebedu katiyo ikum two ma copo nyayu two ma rac. Tem migi mi tiyo ku two eni utimiri ngo maber: enyai ungo kud i yen ni yen kende, ci umitu juyike pi kit two matung tung. Kadi bende, Powell ubedu kud anyonga lee dit pi lembe pa yen madit ma podho piny man emiyu yore mi ryeko pi timo lembe marac ma dhanu timo. Eyero kumae: “Pi lembe ma rac ma watimo ku piny mwa ma wotho i ng’om zoo, wakelo twoyo ma kelo twoyo kud i ng’om mange.” "Aparu niya: Wow, eni ber. Tye kare mi dwoko ne cen."
Powell ubedu ngo ngati mir acel ma temo ni daru rwinyo. I ngei ma nen kamaleng niya chestnuts mi Amerika ubedu ka rwinyo, USDA utemo pidho yen mi chestnut mi China, ma ubedo nyamin ma tek tek, pi ni nyang kani yen eni copo loko chestnuts mi Amerika. Ento, chestnuts dongo woko, man gibedo calu yen ma nyak nying yen. Gibedo ma nok i lum ku yen mi oak man yen madongo mi Amerika. Dongo migi ucungo, nyo githo kende. Jumaryek de gitemo nyayu chestnuts kud i ngom mi Amerika man China karacelu, ku genogen mi nwangu yen ma ku kite maber pa yen ario eno. Tuc pa gavumente upodho man juweko.
Powell udaru tic i State University of New York School of Environmental Science and Forestry, kama enwange ku Chuck Maynard, jagor mi genetics ma opodho yen i ot mi yath. Oru manok mukadho, ju ma gisomo lembe mi ng'om gi cwio piny ma kwong'a ma juloko i kum yen-ma gi medo gene ma mio kero mi juku yath i kum taba pi nyuthu lembe ma jutimo ento ungo pi tic moko ci mi kuloka. Maynard (Maynard) ucaku timo tic ku diro manyen, ma ebeyenyo diro manyen ma rwate kudu. I kare meno, Darling ubedu ku kodhi moko man lembe ma tek: yubu chestnuts mi Amerika.
I kind oro elifu mapol mi timo tic mi dongo yen macon, jurufur (man ju ma gisomo lembe mi ngec manyen) gi poko yen matung tung ku kit ma mitu. I ngeye, genes gi rwinyo karacelu, man dhanu giyero wil maber pi bero-ma dit, nying yen ma mit man ma rwinyo two. Pol kare, eteru oro madwong mi yubu piny moko. Lembe eni utiye moth man eketho dhanu bedo ku jiji. Darling upenjere ka nyo yore eni copo nyayu yen maber calu kite ma en ubedo kudu. Ewecu ira kumae: “Aparu wacopo timo maber uloyu.”
Genetic engineering nyutho bedo ku twero madit: kadi nang gene moko uai kud i lei moko ma rwate ngo, jucopo yero pi tic moko man jukethe i genome pa lei mange. (Lembe ma kwo ku genes migi kud i kit lei matung tung ju "loko gene migi." I kare ma ukadhu, ju ma gisomo lembe mi ngec gi goru yore mi loko genome pa lei ma gi mito.) Diru eni mio kony maber man pio pio. Powell yiyu niya eni nen ni ber mandha pi chestnuts mi Amerika, ma elwongo ni "yen ma ber mandha"-tek, bor, man cam madwong, ma mitu aloka loka kende: tek pa two ma wok kud i bacteria.
Ayie. Ewecu: "Umitu wabed ku jururyeko i tic mwa." "Nicaku i tic mi gedo ni tic mi gedo eni ubedo kende kende kit tic moko kende."
Powell ku Maynard giparu niya ecopu tero oro apar ni nwangu genes ma mio kero, ni yubu diro mi medu gi i genome pa chestnut, man ni dongo gi. "Wabe paru kende," Powell uwacu. "Ngatu moko mbe ma utiye ku genes ma mio kero mi juku two. Wacaku kud i kabedu ma oling."
Darling upenjo kony kud i bang American Chestnut Foundation, dul moko ma timo ngo pi lim ma juyike i acaki pa 1980s. Jatel wigi uwacu ire niya edaru rwinyo. Gitiye ku miti mi timo hybridization man gibedo ma wang gi twolo ikum genetic engineering, ma ukelo kwedo pa ju ma gwoko kwo pa piny. Pieno, Darling ucwio kanisa pare ma timo ngo lim pi culu tic mi genetic engineering. Powell uwaco ni kanisa ne ukyewu waraga mir acel ni Maynard ku Powell pi $30,000. (I 1990, kanisa mi ng'om uloko man ujolo dul pa Darling's secessionist calu dul migi mir acel mi ng'om, ento jumoko gibedo ku jiji nyo gikwero genetic engineering.)
Maynard ku Powell gitiye i tic. Ndhu ndhu, yub migi ma giparu ubedo nya epe. Peko mir acel utiye ni ngeyo kite mi dongo chestnuts i ot mi yath. Maynard utemo rubu lum mi chestnut ku hormone mi dongo i petri dish ma nyap, yore ma jutiyo kudu pi dongo poplars. Ewok nya eni epe. Yen manyen bi dongo ngo lak man lum kud i cell ma pire tek. Maynard uwacu: "Atiye jatel wi ngom zoo i neko yen mi chestnut." Jagor moko i University of Georgia, Scott Merkle (Scott Merkle) uponjo Maynard kite mi wok kud i pollination nituc i Plant chestnuts i embryos i kare mi dongo.
Nwangu gene maber-tic pa Powell-de ubedu tek. Etimo oro madwong pi timo sayusac ikum yath moko ma jwigo kwidi ma wok kud i gene pa ungwal, ento eweko yath ne pi lworo nia dhanu copo yio ngo yen ma ungwal. En de uyenyo pi gene ma jwigo two ma wok kud i chestnuts, ento enwango ni gwoko yen ukwayu gene madwong (ginwangu nya romo abusiel). I ngeye, i 1997, wadi tic moko udwogo kud i coko mi ngec mi ngec man egoro lembe ma jukwanu man lembe ma jukoro. Powell ukyewu wi lembe moko ma julwongo ni "Nyuthu pa oxalate oxidase i yen ma juloko gi miyo kero ikum oxalate man oxalate-producing fungi". Kud i sayusac pare ikum two, Powell ung'eyo nia wilt fungi wodhu oxalic acid pi nego lum mi chestnut man miyo bedo yot ni camu. Powell ungiyu niya ka chestnut copo yubu oxalate oxidase pare gire (piny moko ma pire tek ma copo turu oxalate), ci ecopu bedu ku copo mi gwoko kwo pare gire. Ewecu: "Eni ubedu kare para mi Eureka."
Ewok nya lum madwong utiye ku gene maweku gi ni wodhu oxalate oxidase. Kud i bang jagor ma umio wec, Powell unwangu kit moko pa nganu. Nyathin musomo Linda Polin McGuigan umedire ku diro mi "gene gun" mi ketho genes i ic pa chestnut, ku gen ni ecopu ketho i DNA pa embryo. Gene ne ubedo i ic pi kare manok, ento edaru rwinyo. Jururieko giweko yore eni man giloko ni bacterium moko ma con uketho yore mi turo DNA pa lei mukende man ketho genes migi. I ngom, lei makwiny medo genes ma diyo dhanu ni timo cam pa kwidi. Ju ma gisomo lembe ikum genetics gimondo ikum bacteria eni kara ecopu ketho gene moko ci ma jururieko mitu. McGuigan onwango kero mi medu genes pa nganu man marker proteins i nyithindho pa chestnut. Ka juyiko protein i the microscope, protein ne biwodho ler macol, ma nyutho nia edaru ketho i iye maber. (Jutic ne giweko tic ku marker proteins pio pio-ngati moko mbe ma umitu yen ma copo ler.) Maynard olwongo yore ne ni "piny maber loyo i ng'om."
Ikind kare, Maynard ku Powell gigero kabedo mi coko yen ma julwongo ni chestnut, ma kawoni ucidho i wi ot ma dit mi 1960s ma jugiero ku brick-and-mortar forestry research, man bende kabedo manyen ma leng ma julwongo ni "Biotech Accelerator". Lembe mir acel uketho i iye yero embryos ma dongo kud i cells ma rom (pol pa embryos ma juyubu i lab timo ngo eni, ci eber ungo ni cwio clones) man ketho genes pa wheat. Cells mi nyathin, calu agar, utiye piny ma calu pudding ma juwodho kud i algae. Pi loko nyathin ne ni yen, ju ma timo sayusac gi medo hormone mi dongo. Ajeni mapol ma nen calu cube ku yen ma nok ma lum ma nyai copo bedu iwi shelf ithe ler ma tek. I ajiki, ju ma gisomo lembe mi ng'om gi tiyo ku yath mi yiku yen, gi pidho yen migi ma kwong'a i vur ma upong ku ngom, man gi ketho gi i ot ma lyeth pare rwinyo. Ubedo lembe mi ziazia ngo, yen ma nwang i ot mi yath utiye marac woko. Pieno, ju ma timo sayusac gi ketho gi karacelu ku yen mi lum mi nwangu yen ma tek ento ma tek pi temo i podho.
I kare mi cwir ario mukadho, Hannah Pilkey, nyathin musomo ma udaru somo i Powell's lab, unyutho ira kite mi timo eni. Epidho fungus ma nyayu two ma wok kud i bacteria i petri dish ma nok. I ayi ma cego eni, two ma rangi pa orange nen maber man leng. Etek ni paru niya etiye the lembe ma nyayu tho man nyoth pa dhanu madwong.
Giraffe ma ni iwi ngom ucungo iwi ngom, uketho lanyuth ikum thenge ma romo milimita abic pa yen moko ma nok, etimo wang adek maber ku scalpel, man ebolo two ikum ret ne. E umo gi ku filim mi plastik. Ewecu: "Ebedo calu band-aid." Calu eni ubedo yen ma rwinyo ngo, egeno nia two orange bi nyai pio pio kud i kabedu mi yath man i ngeye ebi guro lum ma nok. Enyutho ira yen moko ma tye ku gene pa nganu ma edaru tiyo kudu con. Twoyo ne utiye kende kende i ka ma juturo, calu lak ma rangi pa orange ma ceng ku dhoge ma nok.
I 2013, Maynard ku Powell giwacu nia gitiye ku adwogi maber i Transgenic Research: oro 109 i ngei nwangu pa two mi chestnut mi Amerika, gicwio yen ma nen calu gi gwoko kwo migi gigi, kadi nangu jutwo ku lum madwong. Ni mio deyo ni jadhum migi mir acel man ma timo berocwiny, ebolo sente ma romo $250,000, man ju ma timo sayusac gibedu ka mio nying yen ku nyinge. Eni julwonge ni Darling 58.
Coko ma kubang oro pa New York Chapter pa American Chestnut Foundation ubedo i ot acama moko ma nok woko pa New Paltz Iceng abusiel mi dwi mir apar 2018. Dhanu ma romo 50 gicokiri karacelu. Rombo eni ubedu coko mi lembe mi ngec man coko mi wil mi chestnut. I ngeye pa ot moko ma nok mi coko, ju dul ne giloko osau mi Ziploc ma upong ku nying yen. Rombo eni ubedo wang mir acel ikind oro 28 ma Darling nyo Maynard ubedu ngo i iye. Peko mi yot kum uketho gin ario zoo gibedo bor. "Wabe timo eni pi kare malac, man kubang oro wabedo ling pi ju m'utho," Allen Nichols, jadit mi kanambu, uwacu ira. Ento, paru pa dhanu podi utiye maber: yen ma juloko ku gene udaru kadhu oro madwong mi pima ma tek mi gwoko kwo man tic maber.
Ju ma gibedo i dul ne gimio acaki matuc ikum kite ma yen acel acel madit mi chestnut ma kwo i New York State utiye kudu. Pilkey ku awiya kwan mukende ma gisomo iwi rwom ma malu gi nyutho kite mi coko man kano pollen, kite mi pidu chestnuts ithe mac mi ot, man kite mi pongu ngom ku two blight pi medo kwo pa yen. Dhanu ma cashew chested, pol migi gi tiyo ku lum man gi pidho yen migi gigi, gipenjo ju ma gisomo lembe mi ngec ma nyen.
Bowell ubedo iwi ngom, eruke piny ma nen calu yunifom ma rwinyo ngo pi thenge eni: kor bongu ma cinge ucungo i jeans. Lembe pare acel kende-tic pare mi oro pyer adek ma juyiko ku lembakeca pa Herb Darling mi dwoko chestnuts-ubedo piny ma nok ikind ju ma gisomo lembe mi ngec, ma pol kare gitimo sayusac i kind oro abic mi lim, man i ngeye adwogi maber jupoko ni jumange pi ketho gi i tic. Don Leopold, wadi tic i dipatmen mi Powell's Environmental Science man Forestry, uwacu ira kumae: “Etie ngati ma winjo lembe man etiye ku kura maber.” "Eketho cinge. Ebedo ngo ku lembe mange mapol ma nyayu anyonga i iye. Kinde ma sayusac uthum, judongo pa State University of New York (SUNY) gilwonge man gipenje pi twero pa yen pare kara university unwangu bero kud i iye, ento Powell ukwero. Ewecu niya yen ma juloko ku rangi del kum gi calu chestnuts macon man gitiye dhanu pa Powell i ot eni.
Ento ewacu igi kumae: I ngei loyo peko mapol, yen ma juloko ku gene copo nwangu peko madit: gavumente mi Amerika. Yub moko mukadho, Powell uoro waraga ma romo 3,000 ni US Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, ma en e tic mi yiko yen ma juloko. Eni caku yub mi yio pa judongo: nen waraga mi kwac, penj paru pa dhanu, kyewo waraga mi adwogi pa kwo pa piny, peny paru pa dhanu kendu man moko tam. Tic eni copo kwayu oro madwong. Ka lembe moko epe, tic copo juku. (Kare mi dwoko wang lembe pa lwak mir acel podi oyabere ngo.)
Ju ma timo sayusac giparu mi cwalu waraga mange ni Food and Drug Administration kara ebed ku copo mi ngiyo beru pa cam pa nying yen ma juloko ku gene, man Environmental Protection Agency bi neno adwogi pa yen eni ikum ngom i the cik pa Federal Pesticide Law, ma jukwanu pi yen ceke ma juloko ku gene. ma kwo. "Eni lembe ma nyang ikum lembe mi ngec!" ngati moko ikind juwinj uwacu.
"Eyo." Powell uyio. “Lembe mi ngec mi ngec utiye piny ma nyayu anyonga. Etiye lembe ma nyayu can.” (I ngeye ewacu ira kumae: "Nen pa judongo adek matung tung ubedo lembe ma kadho. Etimo lembe manyen i gwoko kwo pa piny.")
Mi nyutho nia yen migi utiye maber, jutic pa Powell gitimo pima matung tung. Gi miyo oxalate oxidase ni pollen pa kic. Gipimo dongo pa fungi maber i ngom. Giweko ith i pii man gi lubo tok tic migi ikum t. Adwogi marac moko ope ma juneno i lembe moko ci ma juponjo-i andha, andha, tic pa cam ma juloko ku gene ber uloyu ith pa yen moko ma juloko ngo. Jumaryek ucwalu nying yen ne i Oak Ridge National Laboratory man laboratori mange i Tennessee pi timo sayusac, man ginwangu ngo tung tung ku nying yen ma juyubu kud i yen ma juloko ngo.
Adwogi ma kumeno copo ketho cwiny judongo. Gicopo yiko ngo cwiny ju ma kwedo GMOs. John Dougherty, jangeyo lembe ma oro pare thum kud i Monsanto, umio kony mi paru ni Powell manangu epe. Elwongo ju ma gicungo ikumgi ni "ju ma gicungo ikumgi." Pi oro madwong, dilo mi gwoko kwo pa piny ubedo ka ciko dhanu nia loko genes ikind lei ma gikwo karacelu bibedo ku adwogi marac, calu ve cwio "super weed" ma kadho lum ma dongo dongo, nyo kelo genes ma woko ma copo nyayu aloka loka marac i DNA pa lei. Gibedo ku lworo de nia kampuni tiyo ku genetic engineering pi nwangu twero man jwigo piny ma kwo.
Kawoni, Powell uwacu niya enwango ngo sente moko cii kud ibang ju ma timo tic, man eketho cwinye nia kony pa sente ni laboratory ubedu "ma jukwanu ngo." Ento, Brenda Jo McManama, jatel wi kanisa moko ma julwongo ni "Indigenous Environmental Network", onyuthu winjiri moko i 2010 ma Monsanto umio ni Chestnut Foundation man juwadi New York The chapter umiyu twero mi loko gene ario. (Powell uwacu ni kony pa tic, ikinde Monsanto, utiye piny pa 4% pa tic pare.) McManama paru niya Monsanto (ma Bayer unwangu i 2018) ubemito ni nwangu patent ni cwaku gin ma nen calu tic manyen pa yen. Tic ma ber ongo. "Monsan ubedo rac," ewacu ku cwiny ma thwolo.
Powell uwaco ni patent mi 2010 uthum, man ni nyuthu lembe ikum yen pare i giragora mi ngec, en eketho cinge ikum yen ne. Ento enyang niya eni copo daru ngo lworo zo. Ewecu, "Angeyo ngati moku copo wacu niya ibedo kende kende jamb lworo pa Monsanto." "Icopo timo ang'o? Piny moko mbe ma icopo timo."
I kind oro abic mukadho, judongo pa American Chestnut Foundation giparu niya gicopo nwangu ngo paru migi ku timo hybridization kende, ci giyio program pa Powell mi loko genetic engineering. Paru eni ukelo apoka poka moko. I dwi mir adek 2019, jadit mi Massachusetts-Rhode Island Chapter pa Foundation, Lois Breault-Melican, uweko tic, pi lembe pa Global Justice Ecology Project (Global Justice Project), dul ma kwedo gene engineering ma juketho i Buffalo. Justice Ecology Project) lembe; cware Denis Melican de uweko tic mi tela. Dennis uwacu ira nia juru ot eca gibedo ku lworo nia Powell's chestnuts copo bedu "Trojan horse", ma uketho yo ni yen mange ma jucwalo ni bedo ku tego ma lee nikadhu kud i genetic engineering.
Susan Offutt, jagor mi lembe mi poto, utiye jadit mi National Academy of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine Committee, ma utimo sayusac ikum biotechnology mi lum i 2018. Enyutho nia cik pa gavumente uketho wigi ikum lembe ma nok pa kwo pa lei, man edaru ngo paru ikum lembe madongo pa kwo pa dhanu, calu ma ju ma timo tic ikum rasis ma gikwo ikum mon. "Ber pa lum utiye ango?" epenju, calu lanyuth pa peko, yub ne uweku ngo. "Nyo lum utiye ku bero migi gigi? Watiye ku tic mi ketho lembe eni i iye ka wabe timo yub mi timo lembe?"
Pol pa ju ma gisomo lembe mi ngec ma aweco kudgi gipe ku tyen lok manok mi bedo ku lworo ikum yen pa Powell, kum lum ne unwangu peko madit: turo yen, golo piny, dongo, man wel pa lei man two mapol ma nyayu peko ikum yen. Ikindgi, chestnut wilt unyutho nia ubedo yub mi yabo. "Wabedo ka kelo piny manyen ma kwo," owacu Gary Lovett, jagor mi lum i Cary Ecosystem Institute i Millbrook, New York. “Adwogi pa chestnuts ma juloko ku gene utiye nok akeca.”
Donald Waller, jagor mi lum ma kawoni eweko tic kud i University of Wisconsin-Madison, umedire anyim. Ewecu ira kumae: "Icing moko, aketho rwom ma nok ikin ariti ku bero. Icing mange, abedo ka ngiyo wiya pi ariti." Yen ma juloko ku gene eni copo bedu rac ni lum. I tung ocele, "karatasi ma piny pa foc upong ku ink." Ewecu niya yen ma julwongo ni chestnut ma kwero turo bino loyo lum maeni. Dhanu mitu gen. Dhanu mitu lanyuth. ”
Powell bedo moth, ento ju ma giparu ngo ikum genetic engineering copo nyayu lworo i iye. Eyero kumae: “Gibedo ku thelembe moko ngo i bang’a.” "Gicungu ngo iwi ngec mi ngec." Ka jurudiro timo mutukari maber nyo simu maber, ngati moko ope ma nyai, pieno emito ngeyo ango ma rac ku yen ma juyubu maber. "Eni ubedo jam tic ma copo konyu," Powell uwacu. "Pirango ma iwacu niya wacopo tiyo ku jam tic eni ngo? Wacopo tiyo ku screwdriver pa Phillips, ento ungo ku screwdriver ma rwinyo, man kumeno bende?"
I acaki pa dwi mir apar 2018, acidho ku Powell i kabedo moko ma yot yo piny pa Syracuse. Ebedo ku gen ni anyim pa kit chestnut mi Amerika bidongo. Kabedo ne dong udong ungo, man etiye acel ikin kabedo manok ma juyio ni yen udong i iye. Podho madongo pa pine man larch, ma ubedo adwogi pa tic mi sayu lembe ma juweko pi kare malac, ucungo yo piny, bor ku yamu ma tek, ma miyo kabedo ne bedo ku lworo manok.
Jagor Andrew Newhouse i ot tic pa Powell ubetimo tic iwi acel m'ikind yen maber ni ju ma gisomo lembe mi ngec, yen moko ma julwongo ni wild chestnut kud i Virginia ma yo piny. Yen ne bor pare romo futi 25 man edongo i podho mi chestnut ma juyike maber man ma juguro ku lum mabor ma romo futi 10. Sanduku mi somo jutwio i thenge pa jang yen moko. Newhouse onyutho nia plastik ma iye ubedo i Darling 58 pollen ma ju ma gisomo lembe mi ngec gipenjo i Dwi mir Abusiel, man cing ma woko ma juketho i cinge ubedo ku lum ma dongo dongo. Yub eni zo utiye ithe loc pa dipatmen mi ngom mi Amerika; mapodi deregulation, pollen nyo nying yen kud i yen ma juketho i iye genes i fence nyo i laboratory pa ju ma timo sayusac umaku jupok.
Newhouse otiyo ku jang yen. Ka juwodho ku thung, pala ne utur man osau ne upodhu. Newhouse ucidho pio pio i jang yen mange man edwoko timo ne kendu. Powell utingo osau ma podho man eketho gi i osau madit mi plastik, calu tic ku piny ma rac.
I ngei dwogo i ot yath, Newhouse ku Hannah Pilkey giwodho piny kud i sanduku man giwodho nying yen macol kud i lum macol. Gigwoko maber kara kud giwek thwol umond i adila, ma en e peko mi tic i sayusac mi chestnut. I kare mukadho, gimaru nying yen ma pigi tek ma juloko ku gene. I kare eni, gibedo ku piny madwong: makadhu 1,000. "Wan ceke wabetimo myel ma nok ma kud anyonga," Pirkey uwacu.
I ngeye kugweno, Powell uteru chestnuts i opici pa Neil Patterson i lobby. Ubedo ceng pa dhanu macon (Nindu pa Columbus), man Patterson, jatel wi tic mi ESF's Center for Indigenous Peoples and the Environment, ugam udwogo kud i thenge acel mi campus, kama etelo wi nyuthu cam pa dhanu macon. Awia pare aryo ku nyamin omin gibe tuko iwi kompyuta i opici. Dhanu ceke ungolo man ucamu nying yen. "Gi podi gibedo macol," Powell uwacu ku can.
Mic pa Powell utiye pi tic madwong. Ebe poko kodhi, ku genogen mi tiyo ku dul pa Patterson mi pidho chestnuts i kabedu manyen, kama gicopo nwangu kodhi ma juloko i kind oro manok. En de etimo tic mi diplomacy maber.
Kinde ma Patterson ugamu tic i ESF i 2014, enyang ni Powell ubedu ka temo ku yen ma juloko ku gene, ma ubedu mairo manok kende kud i Onondaga Nation Resident Territory. Ma tokcen utiye i lum mabor ku mayils manok yo piny pa Syracuse. Patterson onyang ni ka tic ne utimbre, genes ma jwigo two bimondo i ngom man gicokiri ku chestnuts madong keca, ma biloko lum ma pire tek ni Onodaga. En de ewinjo pi lembe ma nyayu lworo ma ubecwalu ju ma timo lembe, ikinde jumoko ma giai kud i thek mi thek, ni kwetu ikum lei ma juloko ku gene i kabedu mange. Ku lapor, i 2015, thek pa Yurok ukwero gwoko GMO i Northern California pi lworo mi nyayu rac pa kodi man ka maku rec ma julwongo ni salmon.
Patterson uwacu ira kumae: “Ang’eyo nia lembe maeni utimere iwa kae; umaku wabed ku wec moko.” I coko mi 2015 Environmental Protection Agency ma ESF utimo, Powell umio wec maber ni dhanu mi thek mi New York. I ngei wec, Patterson upo ni judongo moko uwacu: "Umitu wapidh yen!" Anyonga migi uketho Patterson ubedo ku jiji. Eyero kumae: “Abino paru ngo.”
Ento, wec ma ukadhu unyutho nia dhanu manok kende re ma gipoi ikum tic ma yen mi chestnut utimo i kura migi macon. Lembe ma Patterson ulubo unyutho ire nia i kare ma lwiny mi kwo pa dhanu man nyoth pa piny ubedu katimere i sawa acel, gavumente mi Amerika ubedu ka ketho yub mi ketho dhanu kud i lwiny man mi ketho dhanu i tic, man twoyo ne utuc. Calu piny mukende mapol, kura pa chestnut i kabedu ne rwinyo. Patterson de unwangu niya paru pa dhanu ikum genetic engineering tung tung. Onoda's jalony mi lacrosse stick Alfie Jacques utiye ku miti madit mi yiku stick ku yen mi chestnut man ekonyo tic ne. Jumange paru niya peku utiye malac man gikwero yen.
Patterson ungiyu lembe aryo eni. I kare ma ukadhu ewacu ira kumae: “Ebedo calu simu man nyathin para.” Enyutho nia nyathin pare ubedwogo kud i somu pi two mi Corona. "Nindu acel atimo kero para zo; mi ketho gi bedo karacelu, gibeponjo. Nindu mukende, wek wawodh piny eni woko." Ento oro madwong mi wecu ku Powell uketho lworo pare udoko nok. I kare manok mukadho, enyang ni nyithind 58 Darling trees bibedo ku genes ma jukelo, ma nyutho ni chestnuts macon bimediri ka dongo i lum. Patterson uwaco ni eni uketho peko madit uthum.
I kare ma wabecidho i dwi mir apar, ewacu ira nia the lembe m'uketho ecopo ngo ni cwaku tic pa GM ubedo pilembe engeyo ngo ka Powell ubedo ku paru ikum dhanu ma gibetimo tic ku yen nyo yen. "Angeyo ngo ango ma utiye ire," Patterson uwacu, ma eturo kore. Ewecu niya kende kende tek mer pa dhanu ku chestnut copo dwogo, ecibedo ber ni dwoko yen eni.
Pi timo eni, ewacu niya ebemito eti ku nying yen ma Powell umiye ni timo chestnut pudding man moo. Ebikelo cam eni i ngom pa Onondaga man ebilwongo dhanu ni dwoko wil migi macon. Eyero kumae: “Ageno kumeno, etie ve imotho jarimo moko ma con. Umitu imond i bas kud kama icungu i iye wang mukadho.”
Powell onwango mic pa $3.2 million kud i bang Templeton World Charity Foundation i Dwi mir Acel, ma biweko Powell mediri anyim ikare ma ebetelo wi judongo pa gavumente man medo lembe pare mi sayu lembe nicaku i kum genetics nitundu ikum lemandha pa yiku ngom. Ka gavumente umiye mugisa, Powell ku ju ma gisomo lembe mi ng'om mi American Chestnut Foundation gicaku yio nya edong. Pollen ku genes pare mukende jubi cwalo nyo jubi cwalo iwi yen mange, man anyim pa chestnuts ma juloko genes biwok labongo lubo kabedo mi temo. Ka waparu niya gene copo bedu maber i podho man i ot mi yath, eni epe, man ebi nyai i lum-eni ubedo lembe mi kwo ma jururyeko mitu ento ju ma timo lembe marac gi lworo.
I ngei ma yen mi chestnut ubedo moth, icopo wilu acel? Eyo, Newhouse uwacu, eno ubedu yub. Ju ma timo sayusac jupenjo juma ku yenga nia yen utiye nenedi.
I ng'om ma Powell, Newhouse man juwadi gikwo i iye, e yot ni winjo nia ngom zoo ubekuru yen migi. Ento, ringo ku mutukari yo malu nyanok kud i podho mi sayu lembe nikadhu kud i adhura mi Syracuse upoyo wiwa kite ma aloka loka madit utimere kudu i kabedu man kwo pa dhanu nicaku i kare ma lum mi Amerika utho. Chestnut Heights Drive utiye i adhura moko ma nok yo malu pa Syracuse. Etiye yo ma dhanu bedo i iye ku yore malac, lum maleng, man yen ma nok ma juyubu i ot. . Dul pa yen mitu ngo ni dwoko yen pa chestnuts. Lembe mi poto ma dhanu timo giri ma ucungo iwi chestnuts udaru lal. Ng'atu moko ope ma kwanyo nying yen mayom man mamit kud i burrs matek akeca. Dhanu mapol copo ngeyo ngo nya piny moko epe ma rwinyo i lum.
Acungu man acamu cam mi diewor i dhu nam Onondaga i the tipo pa yen madit macol. Yen ne upong ku lum macol macol. Aneno vur ma lei makwiny timo i kor yen. Ecaku rwenyo ith pare man ecopu tho man epodho ingey oro manok. Pi bino keni kud i pacu para i Maryland, awotho ku mutukari ka kadhu yen mapol ma tho, ku jang yen macol ma ucungo inget yo.
I Appalachia, kampuni ne ugoyo yen kud i kabedu malac mi Bitlahua pi nwangu makaa piny. Adunde pa ngom mi makaa urombo ku adunde pa ngom macon mi chestnut. American Chestnut Foundation utiyo ku dilo moko ma gi pidho yen i cula mi makaa ma juweko, man yen mi chestnut kawoni dongu iwi ngom ma romo eka elifu ma peko ne unyothu. Yen eni gi ubedo thenge acel kende pa yen ma rwinyo ma rwinyo two ma wok kud i kwidi, ento gicopo doko piny acel ku yen manyen ma ceng moko copo pyem ku yen madongo macon.
I Dwi mir Abic mukadho, kadhiri pa carbon dioxide i yamu utuc 414.8 parts per million pi tyen mir acel. Calu yen mukende, pek pa American chestnuts ma epe ku pii utiye nusu pa carbon. Piny manok kende ma icopo pidu iwi ngom copo kwanyo yamo kud i yamu pio pio ma sagu yen mi chestnut ma dongo. Ku paru eni, lembe moko ma juwodho i Wall Street Journal oro mukadho uwacu ni, "Wek wabed ku podho mi chestnut mange."